ISTORY 







Ttt 



■ in 




Copyright N^. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



EPITOME OF 

HISTORY AND PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION 



EPITOME 

OF 

HISTORY and PRINCIPLES 
of EDUCATION 



BY 



THOMAS J. McEVOY 



FOUNDER OF McEVOY SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY, BROOKLYN, N. Y.; FORMERLY 

IN PRACTICE DEPARTMENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, CORTLAND, N. Y.; 

AUTHOR OF "science OF EDUCATION" AND "AIETHODS 

IN education"; editor of McEVOY MAGAZINE. 



T. J. McEVOY, Publisher 

6 THIRD AVENUE 

BROOKLYN, N. Y. 








McEVOY PEDAGOGICAL SERIES 




1. 


Epitome of History and Principles of 






Education 


$1.00 


2. 


Methods in Education, third edition 


1.50 


3. 


Science of Education, second edition 


2.00 


4. 


Answers in Methods of Teaching, 






second edition, 1914 . . . . 


2.00 


5. 


Answers in Methods in Arithmetic, 






second edition 


2.00 


6. 


Answers in School Management, 






second edition, 1915 


2.00 


7. 


Answers in History and Principles 






of Education (in preparation) . . 


2.00 


8. 


Examination Questions in Enghsh . 


1.00 


9. 


Examination Questions in Methods 






and School Management . . . 


1.00 


10. 


Examination Questions in History 






and Principles of Education . . 


1.00 



Copyright, 1907, 1915 
By Thomas J. McEvoy 



First edition, November, 1907 
Second edition, July, 1915 



JUL 31 1915 



^yA 



CIA401951 



/ 

r 

PREFACE 

'^ The first edition of this book was a pioneer in the ef- 
^ fort to organize the facts in the history of education. 
That effort found immediate justification in training 
schools, normal schools, universities, and especially home 
study by zealous men and women who could not take 
established courses in educational institutions. This 
second edition, revised and enlarged, embodies eight 
years more of experience, suggestions from many edu- 
cators, the benefits of scholarly research by other au- 
thors, and the helpful contributions from various kinds 
of experiment to determine standards of effectual teach- 
ing. The book itself is an expression of gratitude to all 
who have aided in making a clearer presentation of his- 
tory and principles of education. 

Thomas J. McEvoy. 



CONTENTS 



PAET I. MEANING OF EDUCATION, PEIMITIVE 
EDUCATION, ORIENTAL EDUCATION 



CHAPTER 



I, Definitions, Ideals, Values 

II. Education in Primitive Society 

III. China — Ancestral Education . 

IV. India or Hindustan — Caste Education 
V. Phenicia — Commercial Education . 

VI. Persia — State Education . 

VII. Egypt — Priestly Education 

VIII. The Jews — Theocratic Education . 

IX. Summary of Oriental Education 



page 
2 

8 

11 

17 
23 
25 
27 
30 
33 



PART II. CLASSICAL EDUCATION 



X. 
XI. 



XII. 



XIII. 



Greece 



Old Greek Education 

I. Homeric Period . 
II, Spartan Education 
III. Old Athenian Education 

New Greek Education at Athens 
The Age of Pericles 

Early Philosophers and the Sophists 
vii 



36 

39 
39 
40 
43 

47 
47 

50 



CHAPTER 

XIV. 



XV. 



CONTENTkS 

The Schools of the Philosophers, 
Socrates, Plato, Aristotle 
I. Socrates 
II. Xenophon 

III. Plato . 

IV. Aristotle 



Rome — Education for Efficiency . 
I. Early Roman Education 
II. Introduction of Greek Schools 
III. Graeco-Roman Education 
IV. Noted Roman Educators 
V. Summary of Roman Education 
VI. Decline of Roman Education 
XVI. Summary of Educational Progress . 



PART III. MEDIEVAL EDUCATION 



XVII. Medieval Education 

XVIII. Early Christian Education 

The Christian Fathers .... 
XIX. Education of the Middle Ages 
I. Monastic Education 
II. Period of Charlemagne 

III. The Period of Chivalry or Feudalism 

IV. Mohammedan Education 
V. Early Christian Universities 

VI. Scholasticism .... 

VII. Mysticism 

VIII. Other Types of Schools 



PART IV. MODERN EDUCATION 

XX. The Renaissance — Humanism . 

Humanism in Italy .... 
Humanism in Holland and Germany 
The Protestant Reformers 
Humanism in England 
Humanism in America 



Vlll 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER 

XXI. The Jesuits 



XXII. Realism ; 16th Century Educators . 

XXIII. The Seventeenth Century 

I. The Innovators of the 17th Century 
II. The Teaching Congregations 
The Oratorians 
Port Royalists 
The Christian Brothers . 



XXIV. 



XXV. 



XXVI. 



The Naturalists of the 18th Century 

I. Francke and the Pietists 

II. Real Schools and Normal School 

III. Basedow .... 

IV. Rollin 

V. Rousseau .... 

VI. Kant 



Psychological Tendency in Education 

I. Pestalozzi 

II. Froebel 

III. Herbart 

IV. Jacotot 
V. Herbert Spencer 

VI. Thomas Arnold 

VII. Alexander Bain 

VIII. Joseph Payne 

IX. Antonio Rosmini 

X. William T. Harris 

XI. Burke A. Hinsdale 

Education in United States 
Massachusetts 
Connecticut 
New Jersey 
Pennsylvania 
Maryland 
Virginia . 
Georgia 



IX 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XXVII. Education in New York State . . . 248 

XXVIII. European School Systems .... 266 

XXIX. Pedagogical Training of Teachers . . . 270 

XXX. Eclectic Conception of Education . . . 280 

XXXI. Chronological Table 284 

XXXII. Pronunciation of Names. — Eeferences for 

Collateral Study 290 

XXXIII. New York State Syllabus of History of 

Education 296 

XXXIV. General Summary 316 

XXXV. Drill and Eeview 331 

Index 339 



PART I 

MEANING OF EDUCATION 
PRIMITIVE EDUCATION 
ORIENTAL EDUCATION 



Chapter I 
DEFINITIONS, IDEALS, VALUES 

The Meaning of Education 

1. The first step in any subject is to consider the 
meaning of the terms used. Epitome, history and edu- 
cation are familiar words, but their exact meaning 
should be given. An epitome is a summary of essen- 
tials. History is an authentic record of events. ''Edu- 
cation," said Kant, ''is the development in man of all 
the perfection which his nature permits. ' ' Other defini- 
tions of education put emphasis upon aim or content or 
method or result, but all of these should be included 
in one definition. Students will be able to make a satis- 
factory definition at the close of the course in the his- 
tory of education, but it is economy of mental energy to 
make a foundation by becoming familiar with the broad 
definition formulated by President Butler of Columbia 
University. 

In Butler's The Meaning of Education we find that 
education means a gradual adjustment to the spiritual 
possessions of the race. Those possessions are considered 
as inheritances and he mentions five kinds — scientific, 
literary, esthetic, institutional and religious. The scien- 
tific inheritance is found in geography, nature study, 
mathematics and physics; the literary inheritance in- 
cludes all forms of literary composition and interpre- 

2 



DEFINITIONS, IDEALS, VALUES 

tation; the esthetic inheritance is embodied in drawing, 
music and other kinds of art that may aid in forming a 
higher conception of life; the institutional inheritance 
is found in all kinds of civic training, including political 
geography, history, civics, and the subordinate forms of 
government represented in state and municipal organi- 
zations; and the religious inheritance includes those 
forms of training that are conducive to spiritual per- 
fection. 

The foregoing definition is eclectic because it em- 
bodies the best in the educative efforts of mankind. It 
says that each generation is entitled to enjoy the spir- 
itual benefits of all prior civilization, i. e., the in- 
heritances ; and it requires that each generation shall in 
turn contribute to the larger inheritances as the develop- 
ment goes on. Thus education is self-realization or the 
training of every pupil so that he shall possess the power 
and the willingness to adapt himself to the needs of the 
time and the locality in which he lives. As a prepara- 
tion for such activity in life, the pupil must become 
acquainted with the educational progress of other 
generations. An essential part of such training for effi- 
ciency is knowledge of the history of education. 

Ideals in Education 

2. The history of education presents a number of 
interesting ideals from western civilization. These can 
be used as related topics in discussing the meaning of 
education, as standards of testing the breadth of defini- 
tions of education, and as means of judging the develop- 
ment through the successive epochs. All these ideals 

^3 



DEFINITIONS, IDEALS, VALUES 

are included in the broad conception of the meaning of 
education according to modern views. 

1. Culture. This term ''refers to the comprehensive 

changes in individual and social life, due to the 
continued and systematic influences of mental im- 
provement. ' ' It implies esthetic appreciation and 
refinement, and it is sometimes considered a syno- 
nym for civilization. The ideal in Athens, in 
later work of the Renaissance, and in many in- 
stitutions today. 

2. Efficiency. Power to do practical work is efficiency. 

The ideal in Rome. 

3. Discipline. A training or fitting for future effi- 

ciency. The ideal in all medieval education, 
among the humanists, and with Locke. 

4. Knowledge. The content of consciousness, the sum 

of acquired facts. The ideal of Bacon, Comenius 
and other Innovators. 

5. Development. The process of directing all the possi- 

bilities of mankind to their highest usefulness. It 
is akin to self-realization. The ideal of Rousseau, 
Pestalozzi and Froebel. 

6. Character. As an educational ideal, character means 

the right disposition of individuality resulting 
from harmonious development. The ideal of Her- 
bart and his successors. 

7. Citizenship. Character and efficiency in civic af- 

fairs; intellect, feelings and will acting under 
consciousness of social obligations. Sparta, 
Athens and Rome had initiation ceremonies that 
4 



DEFINITIONS, IDEALS, VALUES 

exalted citizenship. Horace Mann and John 
Dewey are representative American advocates of 
this ideal in education. 



Value of Study of History of Education 

3. Knowledge. The learning of facts is considered 
an essential part of education. The facts in the history 
of education are worth knowing on account of general 
educative value and specific bearing upon preparation 
for teaching. 

4. Guidance. We may avoid mistakes in teaching 
if we are familiar with the theory and the practice in 
the history of education. Guidance that enables us to 
avoid mistakes is economy of energy in striving for suc- 
cess. In other words, the experience of the race is a 
useful inheritance in promoting the welfare of man- 
kind. 

5. Judgment. The use of the memory in acquiring 
facts is only one helpful procedure in mental develop- 
ment. Judgment, the power to weigh and decide, is a 
related act of higher value. The student in history of 
education reflects upon the facts acquired, tests them 
according to the needs of the past and the present, and 
then makes a decision that is valid. 

6. Ideals. The study of the development of theories 
leads to the psychology of education ; the study of prac- 
tice in teaching justifies accepted methods; the har- 
monization of theory and practice gives balance to all 
the subjects classified as pedagogy. History of educa- 
tion should, therefore, help formulate ideals that are 
clear, practical and inspiring. 

5 



DEFINITIONS, IDEALS, VALUES 

Epochs 

7. Simple division makes four general epochs con- 
venient for study. 

1. Oriental. From early historic periods to the Chris- 

tian era, or to the present. China, India, Phe- 
nicia, Persia, Egypt, the Jews. 

2. Classical. Greece and Rome. Overlaps Christian 

period. 

3. Medieval. 529 to 1500 A. D. To Renaissance. 

4. Modern. 1500 to the present. 

8. The epochs are outlined here to indicate the 
topical treatment shown in the chapters. 

Outline of Epochs 



ien 


tal Education. Recapitulation. 


1. 


China 


2. 


India 


3. 


Phenicia 


4. 


Persia 


5. 


Egypt 


6. 


The Israelites or Jews 



II. Classical Education. 600 B. C. to 476 A. D. 

1. Greece, Athens and Sparta 

2. Rome 

III. Medieval Education. The Christian era to 1500. 

1. The Great Teacher. 

2. The Christian Fathers. First five centuries. 

3. The Monks. Sixth century. 

6 



DEFINITIONS, IDEALS, VALUES 

4. Period of Charlemagne. 800 to 900. 

5. Period of Supremacy of Feudalism. 900 to 

1200. 
G. Period of Universities and Scholasticism. 
1200 to 1500. 

IV. Modern Education. 1500 to present. 

1. Sixteenth century. Renaissance, realism. 

2. Seventeenth century. Innovators. 

3. Eighteenth century. Naturalism. 

4. Nineteenth century. Naturalism, science. 

5. Twentieth century. Eclectic tendency, i. e., 

combining the best. 



Chapter II 
EDUCATION IN PRIMITIVE SOCIETY 

9. Education through experience. 

The writers who speak of education as evolution find 
it necessary to trace the process to the primitive societies 
of savages and barbarians. It is possible to find among 
those people evidence of the educative process in their 
adaptation to environment through the use of experience 
of earlier generations. 

As in all child life, the early training was through 
play and unconscious imitation. Then came conscious 
imitation in learning to produce the necessities of life, 
such as food, clothing and shelter. In all of those acts 
the group instinct of helpfulness was effective in de- 
veloping customs, but there was no organized effort in 
education. Boys and girls were creatures of custom, and 
their responsive development did not go far beyond the 
limits of tribal experience. Initiation ceremonies and 
other related experiences appealed to the feelings and 
the will, and opened the way to the virtues having the- 
oretical and practical value. Thus the developing insti- 
tutions became the embodiment of customs and ideals. 

10. Institutions in primitive society. 

The dominant characteristic of primitive peoples is 
called animism. This name is associated with the belief 

8 



EDUCATION IN PRIMITIVE SOCIETY 

that every life has a companion spirit or double in trees, 
rocks, animals and other things. This close companion- 
ship with environment directed the course of daily life, 
gave content to intellectual and spiritual beliefs, and 
made a foundation for natural religion, early philoso- 
phy and rudimentary science. 

The scope of animism offered opportunity to those 
whose fitness enabled them to deal satisfactorily with 
the spirits. The favored ones became the wizards, 
shamans or medicine men. They were the earliest teach- 
ers, and their work gave form to written language, de- 
termined the subject-matter for study, and directed the 
method of instruction. Under this development, the 
priests were the first teachers. As their office was re- 
ligious in its nature, instruction in common things of 
life devolved upon the home. Later development pro- 
duced the school as soon as the priests found it neces- 
sary to organize special instruction for candidates for 
the priesthood. 

Thus, primitive peoples exemplified certain tendencies 
which are considered essential elements in organized 
education. The instincts of play, imitation, construc- 
tiveness and fellowship were utilized in converting ex- 
perience into customs which embodied ideals that domi- 
nated the development of institutions. 



Chapter III 

CHINA— ANCESTRAL EDUCATION 

Ancient oriental education is spoken of as recapitula- 
tion because it summarizes the history of those eastern 
nations. China may be taken as a type that embodies 
the characteristics of early civilization. Among those 
characteristics are (a) independent national existence 
on account of tendency toward isolation; (&) govern- 
ment by rulers with authority sanctioned by tradition 
or divine right; (c) adherence to the fixed ways of the 
past or to the dominating ideas of ancestors; (d) ac- 
ceptance of a caste system; and (e) worth of the indi- 
vidual not recognized. 

11. Aim of education in China. 

To prepare for success in life. This aim was definite 
because no one could go beyond the rigid standards of 
social organization. Success was the attainment of the 
best under the fixed rules governing home, school, state 
and vocation. In all this, the ideal, moral and intel- 
lectual, rested upon the past, and success was estimated 
in measures of exact imitation. 

12. General characteristics and means. 

1. Moral; in school, literary. 

2. Based upon Confucianism, supplemented by Bud- 

dhism and Taoism. 

11 



CHINA— ANCESTRAL EDUCATION 

Confucius (550-478 B. C.) was a philosopher whose 
ethical code and personal influence secured an enthusi- 
astic following, although he neither remodeled the old 
religion nor taught a new theology. The old religion 
embraced worship of ancestors, deified rulers and 
spirits ; vague ideas of future life ; no system of rewards 
and punishments ; there were offerings but never human 
sacrifices. The influence of Confucius was a revival of 
religious fervor under the idea of the golden rule. His 
writings embodied the wisdom of twenty centuries and 
gave to the Chinese ''the loftiest moral code which the 
human mind unaided by divine revelation has ever pro- 
duced." 

3. Sacred texts: The Four Boohs and The Five Clas- 
sics, partly by Confucius (550 — 478 B. C), partly 
by his disciple Mencius (372—289 B. C), and 
partly by later disciples. 

The Four Books 

1. Analects of Confucius 

2. Great Learning 

3. Doctrine of the Mean 

4. Mencius 

The Five Classics 



1. 


Spring and Autumn 


2. 


Books of Poetry 


3. 


Books of History 


4. 


Books of Rites 


5. 


Books of Changes 




12 



CHINA— ANCESTRAL EDUCATION 

4. All ethical and social duties included in five rela- 
tions: sovereign and subject, parent and child, 
husband and wife, brother and brother, friend 
and friend. 

13. Sayings of Confucius. 

1. ''What you do not want done to yourself, do not 

do to others." 

2. "Learning without thought is labor lost. Thought 

without learning is perilous." 

3. "To see what is right and not to do it is want of 

courage. ' ' 

4. "Shall I tell you what knowledge is? When you 

know a thing, to hold that you know it ; and when 
you do not know a thing, to confess your igno- 
rance." 

5. "Worship as if the Deity were present." 

14. The home. 

1. The family is the unit of social organization.' 

2. Wife is servant to husband. 

3. Filial obedience includes all duties. 

4. Disobedience punishable by death. 

5. Virtues: politeness and obedience. 

15. Elementary education. 

1. Child entered school at six or seven. Studied liter- 
ary language which differs from spoken language. 
Reading and writing taught; memorizing four 
primers: The Three Character Classic, The 
Thousand Character Classic, The Hundred Sur- 
names, The Rules of Behavior. School name 
13 



CHINA— ANCESTRAL EDUCATION 

given to child and then he studied The Four 
Books and the Five Classics mentioned in section 
12. 

2. No license to teach. Many of the teachers were 

students who failed in higher examinations. No 
state control ; no public school houses ; school days 
long and continue nearly all the year. 

3. Every village had a school and there were some 

charity schools. 

4. Three stages: memorizing, translation, composition 

of essays. 

5. No alphabet; symbol for every idea, not for sounds; 

mastery of five thousand or more different char- 
acters. 

6. Maxims for morality. 

16. Higher education. 

1. Indefinite in time ; depends upon passing. A system 

of examinations, not of schools. 

2. No* school houses ; individual instruction for success 

in examinations was the method. 

3. The aim of the school work was success in examina- 

tions. Development of literary style was the 

chief merit. 
The administration of education was in charge of the 
Hanlin or Imperial Academy, which was organized in 
seventh century. The members in four groups: (a) 
Emperor's cabinet; (&) in charge of public records; 
(c) history of reigns ; (d) examinations. 

4. Some modern high school instruction. See 18. 

5. Examinations for degrees. 

a. Budding Intellect. 
14 



CHINA— ANCESTRAL EDUCATION 

6. Deserving of Promotion. 

c. Fit for Office. 

d. Forest of Pencils. For Royal Academy only. 

17. Method of Chinese education. 

1. Exact imitation. 

2. In lower stages purely a training of the memory. 

3. Pupils study passages aloud. 

4. Individual recitation. 

5. Rapid repetition the aim of the pupil. 

6. Use of tracing in primary writing. 

18. Criticism. 

1. Memory strengthened. 

2. Chinese stability, as desired by China, secured. 

3. Discipline in mastery of form without knowing con- 

tent. 

4. The content of their literary education had no prac- 

tical relation to daily life. 

5. It made no use of interest as a stimulus. 

6. Women not educated. 

7. Not national, universal, compulsory. 

3Iodern Education 

China must be given credit for many changes in her 
school system. Western ideas are adopted for types of 
normal schools, high schools, colleges and universities ; 
and the reforms will be extended to all elementary edu- 
cation as soon as adjustment can be made. One notable 
advance is the opening of schools for girls. Many 
American teachers are employed in the various institu- 
tions. In 1910 English was made the official language 
in scientific and technical schools. 

15 



Chapter IY 

INDIA OR HINDUSTAN 

A caste system that is the outgrowth of physical, 
racial and religious conditions. Castes are classes of 
society made permanent by custom and law. The castes 
of India were formed in the struggle between the 
Aryans and the native Hindus. The Aryans, an agri- 
cultural people on the steppes of southern Russia, had 
herds, crops, homes and rudimentary civic associations; 
they reverenced the gods supposed to control weather 
and seasons — sky, moon, wind, fire, etc. ; and they had 
both desire and capacity for intellectual advancement. 
They were the progressive people who overran nearly all 
of Europe and much of Asia. Their struggle with the 
native Hindus and the environment in India produced 
the castes and the modified ideals in Hindu education. 

19. Aim of Hindu education. 

To prepare for future life. 

20. Castes. 

1. Brahmans: priests, lawyers, physicians, teachers. 

2. Warriors and rulers. 

3. Merchants, mechanics, farmers. 

4. Sudras or servants. No education. 

17 



INDIA OR HINDUSTAN 

21. Home. 

1. Woman uneducated ; not equal to husband. 

2. Marriage in same or lower castes. 

3. Reverence for parents and teachers. 

22. Elementary education. 

1. A state system supported by government. Teachers 

from the Brahman caste. 

2. In open air or in tents or sheds. Monitors assist in 

teaching. 

3. Method is rote learning, or memory training, as in 

China. 

4. Studies. Reading, writing, arithmetic, language, re- 

ligious and caste ceremonials. 

a. Writing on sand with a stick, on palm 
leaves with a stylus, and on plane leaves 
with ink. 

h. Elementary arithmetic: memorizing tables. 
Repetition by singing. 

c. Memorizing Veda in Sanskrit. The Veda 
constituted the four collections of the 
sacred writings of the Brahmans. The 
time of composition was probably be- 
tween 1500 and 1000 B. C. 

5. Religious exercises, hymns and prayers, three times 

a day. 

6. Discipline mild ; corporal punishment in extreme 

cases. 

23. Higher education. 

For Brahmans and some warriors and farmers, 
grammar 
literature 

18 



INDIA OR HINDUSTAN 

law 

astronomy 

mathematics 

medicine 

philosophy 

religion 

24. Aim of Hindu wisdom is to overcome suffering 
through knowledge. See 27 and 28. 

25. Contributions. 

Decimal system; philosophical and mathematical dis- 
coveries. Kemp's History of Education, page 29, gives 
a favorable summary. 

**The scholarly achievements of the Hindus in their 
enervating climate attest the philosophic character, the 
keenness, and native energy of the Hindu mind. They 
seem to have anticipated by nearly two hundred years 
some of the best features of Aristotle's logic. IMore 
than four centuries before Christ they had a compre- 
hensive grammar of their language. Quite early they 
computed eclipses and places of planets by means of 
tables. In the third or fourth century of the Christian 
era they had excellent treatises on rhetoric. In the fifth 
century A. D. they had an algebra superior to that of 
the Greeks. Whether they received help from the Greek 
algebra is not known. They were able to solve equations 
having two unknown quantities, and had methods for 
the resolution of indeterminate problems of the first and 
second degree. They applied algebra to astronomical 
investigations. The Arabic system of notation, which 
has been such an inestimable boon to the Western na- 

19 



INDIA OR HINDUSTAN 

tions, appears in their literature of the fifth century as 
an old thing. In fact, the Arabs got it, as well as much 
of the algebra they taught to the West, from our Aryan 
kinfolk in India." 

26. Criticism. 

Humane discipline ; contributions to methods of teach- 
ing, mathematics and philosophy. See section 25. 

Rigid caste system prevented flexibility, neglected 
women and servants, and disregarded the worth of man 
as an individual. Too much use of memory without 
thought. 

27. Brahmanism and Buddhism. 

The Brahmans were the scholars of the Hindus. They 
were the priests who composed the Veda, which forms 
the basis of all Hindu education and literature. In the 
changing ideals of the periods, the Veda shows the 
trend of thought. The early religion was nature wor- 
ship of fire, wind, sky, etc. Then came polytheism, the 
belief in many gods. Later came pantheism, the belief 
that all forms of existence came from one source and 
will return to it. All individual existence is pain or 
sorrow; hence, the desire to merge self in Brahma, the 
perfect being from which all things emanated. It is 
obvious that the doctrine of effort to develop individu- 
ality is contrary to the underlying aim of Brahmanism. 

Buddhism, a sort of reformed Brahmanism, dates 
from about 500 B. C. Buddha (the knower, the en- 
lightened one, the awakened) is not the name of one 
person, but a name signifying a person who has achieved 
a certain spiritual and intellectual state by means of the 

20 



INDIA OR HINDUSTAN 

eightfold path described in the next paragraph. Prince 
Siddartha was the founder and he is known as the 
Buddha. 

The fundamental law of Buddhism is expressed in the 
Four Verities or Noble Truths: (1) Suffering exists 
wherever sentient being exists. (2) Cause of suffering 
is a desire, a craving for pleasure or for existence. (3) 
Deliverance from suffering can be effected only by the 
extinction of desire. This is Nirvana. (4) This cessa- 
tion and entrance into Nirvana can be attained only by 
walking in the Path of Buddha, or the Noble Eightfold 
Path. This comprises right views (as to the nature and 
cause of suffering) ; right thoughts ; right words ; right 
actions; right means of livelihood, i. e., as a mendicant 
monk, living in celibacy and on offered alms; right ap- 
plication of the spirit to the study of the law; right 
memory, or freedom from error in recollecting the law; 
and right meditation. 

Primitive Buddhism was atheistic. Gods and all 
earthly things were subject to decay, death and rebirth. 
Hence, sacrifice, worship and priesthood were unneces- 
sary. Later, deities were introduced. The existence of 
soul was denied. Man was considered a combination of 
material qualities, sensations, abstract ideas, tendencies 
of mind, and mental powers. These break up at death, 
but there remains a force. Karma, which tends to form 
a new personality representing the cumulative merit or 
demerit of thoughts, words and acts in life. 

28. Results, social and individual. 

Passive virtues were inculcated, such as politeness, 
patience, modesty, truthfulness and obedience. 

21 



INDIA OR HINDUSTAN 

The education was ethical and ascetic. In the 
tendency toward self-discipiine, some virtues were de- 
veloped, but those virtues were not such as modern life 
demands. As both Buddhism and Brahmanism were 
''systems of organized weariness," India could not rise 
to the civic grade of culture and social efficiency. 



22 



Chapter V 
PHENICIA— COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 

29. Location. 

Phenicia is the Greek name of Canaan. The country 
of the Phenicians was a strip of land five to four- 
teen miles wide and one hundred fifty miles long. Its 
proximity to the Mediterranean Sea favored commer- 
cial development and education was conditioned by the 
phases of industrial life. 

30. Aim. 

To secure commercial success by manufacturing and 
commerce. 

31. Customs and methods. 

1. Religion included worship of gods of fire and forces 

of nature. Sacrifice of children by fire. 

2. Boys apprenticed for vocational training. This 

and other efforts for commercial efficiency weak- 
ened influence of home and caused disregard of 
parents. 

3. Extent of education limited to reading, writing, 

arithmetic and technical knowledge of trade se- 
crets. 

23 



PIIENICIA— COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 

32. Results. 

1. Sea life made men strong, courageous and ambi- 

tious. 

2. Eemarkable development of the cities of Sidon 

(1300 B. C.) and Tyre (1000 B. C.) ; colonization 
of Cyprus, Ehodes, Sicily and other islands ; com- 
merce by sea and land to Africa, Europe, Arabia, 
Assyria, Armenia and other countries; invention 
and development of processes of manufacture. 

3. Government of cities by hereditary monarchy 

checked by two republican assemblies. 

4. National security not permanent without family as 

unit. 

33. Contributions. 

1. Alphabet dating from about 1000 B. C. It had 

twenty-two letters, all consonants. The writing 
was from right to left. 

2. Purple dye, weaving, glass-making, mining, work in 

metals, architecture. 

3. The science of navigation. 

4. The value of intercourse in disseminating ideas and 

material products. 



24 



Chapter VI 
PERSIA— STATE EDUCATION 

34. Aim. 

To serve the state. Military service. 

35. Home. 

1. Father demanded respect from wife and children. 

2. Teacher next to father in esteem. 

3. Mother beloved by children; women uneducated. 

4. Child at home until 7. 

a. Name given by astrologer. 
h. No corporal punishment. 

c. Physical training in running, throwing, 

archery, riding, etc. 

d. Truthfulness, justice, courage developed. 

36. State education. 

National control of boys after seventh year. 

1. First period. 7-15. 

a. Physical training continued. 
h. Moral training by proverbs, prayers, 
c. Teachers were men over 50 years old; models 
in virtue and knowledge. 

2. Second period. 15-25. 

Military training. 
25 



PERSIA— STATE EDUCATION 

3. Third period. 25-50. 

a. Soldier. 

h. Competent retired soldiers became teachers. 

4. Studies. 

a. Eeading and writing for soldiers. 

&. Astronomy, astrology, alchemy, sacred litera- 
ture for priests, called Magi. Their sacred 
writings called Zend-Avesta. 

37. Criticism. 

1. Made moral and physical soldiers. 

2. Inlellectual education neglected. 

3. Women excluded. 

38. Zoroaster, philosopher. 

1. Dualistic philosophy. One supreme God, Ormuzd, 

the principle of light, the good; one evil one, 
Ahriman, the principle of darkness. 

2. Life is a struggle in which good prevails. 

3. Judgment. 

a. The good pass over a bridge to happiness. 

&. The bad are cast off. 

c. The average person put on probation. 

4. Highest ethical value among ancients, excepting the 

Jews. 



26 



Chapter VII 
EGYPT— PRIESTLY EDUCATION 

39. Aim. 

To maintain supremacy of priests. 

40. Castes. 

Not so strict as in India. 

1. Priests, rulers, land owners, wealthy class, higher 

professions. 

2. Soldiers. Associated with priests for protection. 

3. Producers. 

a. Farmers and boatmen. 

&. Mechanics and tradespeople. 

c. Common laborers, fishermen, herdsmen. 

41. Home. 

1. Woman, mistress of home ; some education, taught 

children; polygamy, except for priests. 

2. Religion, piety, obedience, love. 

3. Phj^sical education ; simple food, light clothing. 

42. OrgBJiization, content and method. 

1. Education suited to respective castes, but no system 

controlled by state. 

2. Priests were teachers. Many other teachers of ele- 

mentary subjects. Reverence for teachers. 
27 



EGYPT— PRIESTLY EDUCATION 

3. Elementary period opened at fifth year in temple 

courts. Reading, writing, arithmetic, and some 
geometry and astronomy. Religions training for 
all. Girls received some training in private 
schools and under private tutors. Method in- 
cluded imitation, memorizing, learning numbers 
by play, writing with stylus on wood and with 
ink on papyrus. 

4. Higher education for priests and soldiers. 

engineering 

language 

natural science 

astronomy 

mathematics 

medicine 

philosophy 

religion 

music 

5. Colleges were in the temples. Leading colleges were 

Memphis, Thebes, Heliopolis. 

43. Contributions. 

1. Use of papyrus for writing. 

2. Originated geometry. Why? 

3. Concrete methods in arithmetic and writing. 

4. Evidences of proficiency in engineering, mechanics, 

architecture, decoration, painting, sculpture; in 
manufacturing glass and jewelry; in spinning 
and weaving. 

5. Literature: moral and religious works, poems, 

novels, letters, books of travel. The Booh of the 
Dead contains texts, prayers and incantations to 
28 



EGYPT— PRIESTLY EDUCATION 

help the soul on its way to the court of Osiris. 
The library of Alexandria had many writings on 
various subjects. 

44. Criticisms and results. 

1. Equality destroyed by castes. 

2. Increasing respect for women. 

3. Vast achievements without hereditary value as cul- 

ture products in civilization. Compare Butler's 
definition of education. 



29 



Chapter VIII 
THE JEWS— THEOCRATIC EDUCATION 

45. Location. 

Egypt, Babylon and Palestine are associated with the 
JeAvs, Hebrews or Israelites. Jerusalem a historic city. 
Three periods are embraced in the history of their edu- 
cation. The first is to the coronation of Saul, 1055 
B. C. ; the second, to the beginning of Babylonian cap- 
tivity, 586 B. C. ; the third, to the fall of Jerusalem, 
70 A. D. 

46. Aim. 

To rehabilitate the nation. 

47. The home. 

1. Purest of antiquity. 

2. Wife equal to husband. 

3. Children considered as the gift of God. 

48. Education at home. 

1. Boys, reading and writing. 

2. Girls, household duties and some education. 

3. Eites and ceremonies ; Scripture. 

4. History as a means of patriotism. 

5. Religion, central thought. 

6. Home training best of all nations. 

30 



THE JEWS— THEOCRATIC EDUCATION 

49. The Jewisli school. 

1. 64 A. D., first compulsory education. 

2. Every town must support a school. 

3. Teachers were mature married men. 25 pupils to a 

teacher. 

4. The teacher was greater than the parent because the 

future is greater than the present. 

5. Methods of teaching were good. Dialectic or con- 

versational method and learning by rote. Mul- 
tiple sense appeal, i. e., making use of as many 
senses as possible, was utilized. Pupils sang or 
chanted their lessons. Clearness in presentation 
and drill made the pupils understand. Mild dis- 
cipline; no corporal punishment until after 
eleven. 

6. Sayings from the Talmud. 

* ' The world exists only by the breath of school 
children. ' ' 

**A town without a school and school children 
should be demolished." 

* ' Jerusalem was destroyed because there ceased 
to be schools and school children there." 

'^The pupils' questions should never become too 
much for the teacher. ' ' 

7. Studies. 

reading 

writing 

arithmetic 

geometry 

astronomy 

natural history 

Scripture 

31 



THE JEWS— THEOCRATIC EDUCATION 

50. The schools of the rabbis. 

1. At Alexandria, Babylon, Jerusalem. 

2. Theology and law. 

3. The Talmud is a compilation of the Jewish tradi- 

tions as distin^ished from the original Scrip- 
tures. It embraces the Mishna, the original tra- 
ditions ascribed to Moses, and the Gemmara, com- 
mentaries of the rabbis. Compiled second to 
sixth centuries A. D. 

51. The schools of the prophets. 

Philosophy, poetry, medicine, history and law for sons 
of prophets, priests and other leaders. 

52. Criticism and results. 

1. Exalted woman and home; organized schools; de- 

veloped progressive, united people. 

2. Obedience, patriotism, religion. See 49. 

3. Produced some of the world's greatest poets and 

historians. 



32 



Chapter IX 
SUMMARY OF ORIENTAL EDUCATION 

53. Class distinctions. 

Lower classes were deprived of advantages. The rec- 
ognition of the caste system removed all stimulus ex- 
cepting the attainment of ideals which seemed to be 
adequate under the respective social organizations. 

54. Progressiveness. 

The national ideals were not conducive to free develop- 
ment, as already shown in the preceding paragraph. 
Traditions and authority of teachers took the place of in- 
vestigation and experiment. 

55. Position of individuals. 

Man belonged to the state. Individual worth was esti- 
mated in relation to the mass, not in terms of self. Ser- 
vice was the law of value, but not the service that em- 
braces the reciprocal rights of the individual and so- 
ciety. Politeness, obedience and good conduct were de- 
veloped as passive virtues. ^lemory w^as made the dom- 
inant intellectual powder by acquiring moral precepts as 
guides to conduct. Woman was held inferior to man 
and, as in the lower castes, she was deprived of the ad- 
vantages of education. 

33 



SUMMARY OF ORIENTAL EDUCATION 

56. Content of matter of instruction. 

The elements of subject-matter in modern curricula 
can be traced to various early efforts in education. 
Some of the Eastern nations made creditable advance in 
getting definite arrangement of subje(;ts, but in no case 
can balanced organization be found. 

57. Method of instruction. 

Imitation and memory through repetition in all the 
nations. Play as an educative instinct is evident in In- 
dia and Egypt. Concrete methods associated with play 
may be traced from the periods of barbarism and found 
in frequent use in China, India and Egypt. Appeal to 
many senses and rudimentary motor expression are 
made a part of conscious effort in India, Egypt and 
Israel. 



34 



PART II 

CLASSICAL EDUCATION 
SPARTA, ATHENS, ROME 



Chapter X 

GREECE 

Culture is the aim associated with Grecian education. 
This aim implies liberal training. The basis of liberal 
education is found in the social organization of the 
Greeks. The race was tribal, not national. The Spar- 
tans were Dorians, people who were types of strong, 
practical soldiers. The Athenians were lonians, people 
who were characterized by literary, artistic and philo- 
sophical inclinations. Two other divisions were The 
^olians of Thebes and the Achaeans. In religion the 
Greeks believed in polytheism, the gods being considered 
as personalities. Their ceremonials included oracles, 
mysteries, prayers, libations, games and festivals. The 
civic organization was a type of the city-state, i. e., the 
larger problems usually associated with states were dealt 
with in relation to cities, as in Sparta and Athens. 

58. Progressive features. 

1. Recognition of individuality. 

2. Recognition of the state. 

3. Mutual welfare of individuals and the state. 

4. Education as development meant progressive adjust- 

ment. 

a. Political freedom. 
&. Moral freedom. 
36 



GREECE 

c. Intellectual freedom. Love of knowledge 

for the sake of knowledge. 

d. Esthetic idealization, appreciation and 

realization. Exemplified in art, litera- 
ture, oratory, history, architecture and 
personal appearance. 

e. Effort toward self-realization. Christian 

ideal lacking. Grecian ideal found in 
*'the true, the beautiful and the good." 

59. Great men. 

1. Homer. Iliad and Odyssey about 850 B. C. 

2. Lycurgus. Laws for Sparta, 850 or 800 B. C. See 

62. 

3. Solon. Laws for Athens, 594. Parental duty in 

education. 

4. Pythagoras. See 87. 

5. Fifth to third century B. C. Pericles, ruler in the 

Golden Age of Greece; Herodotus, historian; 
Xenophon, writer ; Demosthenes, orator ; Socrates, 
Plato, Aristotle, Alexander the Great. 

6. Euclid systematized geometry about 250 B. C. Prob- 

ably founded mathematical school at Alexandria. 
* ' There is no royal road to geometry. ' ' 

7. Strabo (first century B. C.?). Educated at Athens, 

Eome and Alexandria. Compiled geographical 
knowledge into his Geography, a treatise in sev- 
enteen books. 

8. Ptolemy (second century A. D.), astronomer, geome- 

ter, geographer. Developed trigonometry and 
put geography upon a scientific basis. Ptolemaic 
theory: (1) The earth is a globe. (2) This 
37 



GREECE 

globe is at rest in the center of the world. (3) 
The heaven or world makes a daily revolution 
round an axis which passes through the center of 
the earth. 



38 



Chapter XI 

OLD GREEK EDUCATION, TO AGE OF PERICLES, 
459 TO 431 B. C. 

I. Homeric Period (1000 to 776 B. C.) 

60. Ideals. 

The poems by Homer are the sources of information 
for this period. The Iliad and the Odyssey are the 
Greek masterpieces that embody the ideals and the prac- 
tises. The ideal was twofold — the man of action and 
the man of wisdom. 

1. Achilles was the type of action : bravery, reverence, 

balance by avoiding extremes. 

2. Odysseus was the type of wisdom: practical judg- 

ment, harmonious balance in thought. 

3. Virtue or worth of citizen was tested by worth to 

the state. 

4. Content of education included physical training in 

military exercises for physical development; mu- 
sic, ethics, rhetoric and religion for intellectual 
and moral development. 
There w^re neither books nor schools, but there were 
tutors. Learning by doing was the method. Ideal and 
real persons were examples that stimulated imitation in 
developing the virtues of bravery, truthfulness, kindli- 
ness, loyalty, chastity and prudence. 

39 



OLD GREEK EDUCATION, TO AGE OF PERICLES 

6. Patriarchal monarchy was the form of government 
in the heroic period. Then followed a republican 
constitution at first aristocratic, but later demo- 
cratic. The democracy of antiquity was one in 
which the majority of citizens ruled, not the ma- 
jority of inhabitants. In most of the Greek 
States, the majority of the population consisted 
of slaves. 

n. Spartan Education (776 to 480 B. C.) 

61. The Homeric period is sometimes called the 
legendary period to distinguish it from the historic 
period which opened 776 B. C. Spartan education was 
influenced by natural and social environment. Tribal 
organization insufficient for defense when Lycurgus un- 
dertook to organize the laws. 

62. Lycurgus. (820 B. C.) 

In the ninth century B. C. Lycurgus divided the peo- 
ple into the three classes given in 63, organized and en- 
forced laws which made the Spartan institutions. 

The government was an aristocratic republic for the 
first class alone. There were two kings, a council of 
28 elders, the popular assembly, and 5 ephors or in- 
spectors. 

Illustrations of Laivs of Lycurgus 

1. Eating in common, fifteen men at table. 

2. Children silent at tables: manners, wisdom; simple 

food, 

40 



OLD GREEK EDUCATION, TO AGE OF PERICLES 

3. Iron money. 

4. State controlled marriage, owned children. 

63. Three classes of people. 

1. Citizens or rulers. Nobles divided into 9000 fam- 

ilies. Hereditary landed estate assigned to every 
family whicli had lost possessions. 

2. Free men, farmers, miners and others. They paid 

dues to owners of property, were bound to mili- 
tary service, and had no political rights. 

3. Slaves, known as helots or prisoners. They were 

divided by lot among the first class, tilled the 
lands, and paid their lords a fixed portion of the 
harvest. 

64. Home. 

1. A¥eak children killed or abandoned. 

2. Children with mother till six or seven ; warlike toys ; 

father or mentor was the teacher. 

3. Obedience, modesty, courage, patriotism. 

65. State education. 

1. Boys in barracks at state expense. 

2. Boys in group under monitors, called irens. 

3. Distinguished boys trained by elders. 

4. Inspector over all groups. 

5. Girls received some training, often wdth boys' 

groups until the girls w^ere fourteen years old. 
G. IMusic on the lyre ; chanting Homer, laws of Ly- 

curgus, and war songs; reading and writing not 

favored. 
7. Evil of crime is in being detected. 

41 



OLD GREEK EDUCATION, TO AGE OF PERICLES 

8. At twelve, boy took mantle of manhood. 

9. At eighteen, the boy entered the class of ephebes, or 

cadets. Strict military training. 

10. From twenty to thirty, the boys were knoAvn as 

youths. Separate barracks, constant physical 
and military training. Actual experience in war. 

11. At thirty, full citizenship. Marriage, home 

founded, state service continued. 

66. Content of Spartan education. 

1. Physical training to produce warriors. Running, 

jumping, riding, SAvimming, hunting, playing 
ball; boxing, wrestling, throwing discus and jave- 
lin, military evolutions; dancing accompanied by 
muscular movements similar to actions in battle. 

2. Reading and writing not taught in barracks, but 

tutors were sometimes employed at private ex- 
pense. 

3. Memory exercises for singing or chanting to de- 

velop warlike spirit. 

4. Conversational topics at tables to develop good man- 

ners, attention, readiness to participate, clear 
judgment and incisive speech. Terse answers 
gave rise to the word laconic, from Laconia, the 
Spartan division of Greece. 

67. Method of Spartan education. 

1. Imitation and play in organized games. 

2. Definite ideals inculcated by rhythmical appeal in 

dancing and chanting. 

3. Practical doing under critical supervision. Physi- 

cal punishment for defects, faults and failures. 
The hardening process carried to extremes. 
42 



OLD GREEK EDUCATION, TO AGE OF PERICLES 

68. Criticism or results. 

1. Robbed the home; produced courageous but cruel 

and selfish men. 

2. Narrow. Duty to humanity not inculcated. 

3. Checked luxury and extravagance. 

4. Woman honored; educated for good motherhood. 

5. Illustration of mode and value of organization in 

education. The ideal was definite — courageous 
defenders of the state; the process was clearly 
arranged — some theory, much practice; a super- 
intendent of education — the pedonomus; moni- 
tors or leaders in teaching — the irens; 20 to 30, 
vocational training as soldier; at 30, manhood 
representing the cumulative effect of education 
for service in citizenship. 

III. Old Athenian Education 

69. Sparta and Athens contrasted. 

Sparta was a kind of military socialism; Athens was 
favorable to the development of democracy. Sparta ex- 
emplified the military ideal; Athens developed the arts 
of peace as well as the arts of war. Sparta destroyed 
the family as a unit of organization; Athens made the 
family a responsible factor in civic life. Sparta did not 
recognize individuality apart from state; Athens did 
recognize the value of full development of the indi- 
vidual. 

70. Materials for culture. 

The Hellenes, or old Greeks, had two valuable in- 
heritances as bases for intellectual advancement. Those 
inheritances were a phonetic alphabet containing both 

43 



OLD GREEK EDUCATION, TO AGE OF PERICLES 

vowels and consonants and the poems of Homer. The 
use of the materials necessitated the formation of 
schools and the securing of laymen as teachers. 

71. The beginnings of a course of study. 

The Greek ideal of education embodied the aim of in- 
dividual excellence or worth closely associated with pub- 
lic welfare. That civic or social ideal required perfec- 
tion of the body in strength and beauty, and perfection 
of the mind or soul through knowledge to wisdom. 
Hence, the education was planned under the two di- 
visions of gymnastics for the body and music for the 
soul. 

72. Responsibility of family in the organization. 

Neglect of child's education thereby released the child 
from the father's control, according to the laws of Solon. 
All schools private; state required music and gymnas- 
tics and controlled the exercises in the gymnasia. 

73. Home. 

1. Father had right to destroy or abandon children. 

2. Use of games in education. 

3. Children in charge of nurse or slaves. 

4. Elementary school, 7-16. Gymnastics and music. 

Pedagogue in charge of boy. 

74. Gymnasia, 16-18. State education. 

1. Public schools for wealthy classes, as in Plato's 

Academy. 

2. Training by conversation with elders. Attendance 

and conversation at banquets, theaters, the law 
courts, etc. 

44 



OLD GREEK EDUCATION, TO AGE OF PERICLES 

75. Ephebes, 18-20. 

1. Enrolled as citizen under oath. 

2. Barrack or camp for first year; regular soldier the 

second year. 

3. Following is the oath taken by boys when they were 

admitted to the army : 
"We shall never bring disgrace to this, our city, by 
any act of dishonesty or cowardice, nor ever desert our 
suffering comrades in the ranks. AVe will fight for the 
ideals and sacred things of the city, both alone and 
with many. We will revere and obey the city's laws 
and do our best to incite a like respect and reverence in 
those above us who are prone to annul or to set them at 
naught. We will strive unceasingly to quicken the pub- 
lic 's sense of civic duty. Thus, in all these ways, we 
will transmit this city not only not less, but greater, 
better, and more beautiful than it was transmitted to 
us." 

76. Content of old Greek education. 

1. Gymnastics. JMore than half the time given to physi- 

cal training. Games in organized course of study 
for pentathlon, which included jumping, run- 
ning, throwing the discus, throwing the spear 
and wrestling; swimming and hunting added 
later. 

2. Music. This included poetry, the drama, history, 

oratory, the sciences, music in the limited sense 
and all other activities presided over by the nine 
Muses. After memorizing Homeric poems the 
boy chanted them to the accompaniment of the 
lyre. Hence music included the processes of de- 
45 



OLD GREEK EDUCATION, TO AGE OF PERICLES 

veloping creative power, — power of expression, 
of initiative and of appreciation. 

3. Reading, writing, and the literary element of edu- 

cation were included in music. The Iliad and 
the Odyssey furnished material for reading. 

4. Arithmetic and drawing were not introduced until 

later. 

5. "Dancing was a rhythmical movement of the whole 

body for the purpose of harmonizing physical de- 
velopment. Dancing was the union of the har- 
mony of thought and emotional experience ex- 
pressed through music and the harmony of physi- 
cal development produced through gymnastics.'' 



46 



Chapter XII 

NEW GREEK EDUCATION AT ATHENS 
(480-338 B. C.) 

The Age of Pericles, 465-429 B. C. 

77. Spirit of liberty. 

Democracy after battle of Marathon, 490 B. C. 

78. Aim. 

Harmonious education of the whole man; culture. 

79. Home. 

1. Child with mother till 6 or 7. 

Toys: play a factor in education; mental, physical. 

3. Intellectual training, poetry, strict obedience; hu- 

mane discipline. 

4. Father or mentor trained boy. 

5. Mother was the equal of the children. 

80. Elementary, 7-15. 

1. Palestra, school for gymnastics. 

2. Didaskaleion, school for music. 

3. Pedagogue, attendant for boy outside of school. 

4. Studies. 

a. Gymnastics: wrestling, running, etc. See 76. 
h. Music: reading, writing, spelling. See 76. 
c. Some arithmetic for utility. 
47 



9 



NEW GREEK EDUCATION AT ATHENS 

5. Long school days. 

6. Trade for poor boys at 14 or 15. 

81. Advanced. 

(After middle of fourth century B. C.) 
grammar 
rhetoric 
poetry 
elocution 
mathematics 
music 
philosophy 

82. Gymnasia. 

At about 15, boys were freed from pedagogue. They 
entered gymnasia for special training for citizenship. 

83. Ephebes. 

At 18 the boy began active service in citizenship. 
See 75. 

84. Organization. 

1. State furnished gymnasia, such as Academy and 

Lyceum. 

2. State fixed qualifications of teachers, school hours, 

number of pupils. 

3. State gave examinations once a year. 

4. Schools were private institutions under state in- 

spection. 

5. Teachers were philosophers; excellent; fees from 

parents, but no salaries. 
48 



NEW GREEK EDUCATION AT ATHENS 

85. Criticism. 

1. Rights of parents exalted. 

2. Freedom of individual. 

3. Play as education. 

4. Harmonious education. 

5. State inspection. 

6. Women and slaves excluded. 



49 



Chapter XIII 
EARLY PHILOSOPHERS AND THE SOPHISTS 

86. Early philosophers. 

From 7th to 5th centuries B. C, philosophers taught 
in different parts of Greece. They sought the origin of 
things and thus made a beginning of scientific and 
philosophic activity. Astronomy and mathematics ben- 
efited thereby. 

Thales, the first philosopher of Greece, was of Phe- 
nician descent. He was a contemporary of Croesus and 
Solon and was one of the Seven Wise IMen. He was the 
founder of Greek geometry, astronomy and philosophy. 
He learned the geometry of surfaces in Egypt, added 
the geometry of lines, and applied geometry to the 
measurement of heights and distances. He introduced 
algebra in this connection. 

87. Pythagoras (582-500 B. C.) 

Born on the island of Samos, a pupil of Thales, a 
student in Egypt, a traveler in other countries. He 
founded a school at Crotona, in southern Italy. His 
school was a brotherhood formed for ethical and re- 
ligious purposes, governed by a set of rules similar to 
the monastic regulations of later times, and destined to 
promote power by meditation, reflection and order in 
adjustment. His aim was to produce harmony and pro- 
portion in life. 

50 



EARLY PHILOSOPHERS AND THE SOPHISTS 

The Pythagorean theory is that number is the essence 
and basis of all things. "All is number." The regu- 
larity and harmony of changes in nature led to this con- 
clusion. In applying the principle of number, odd and 
even were considered the elements of number, odd being 
definite and the other indefinite, while the unit is the 
product of both. From this dualism or twofold nature 
of the unit, the doctrine of harmony in opposites is 
worked out, as finite and infinite, left and right, odd and 
even, male and female, etc. 

The application of this doctrine of number by Pythag- 
oras and the Pythagoreans. 

1. Physics. Bodies were analyzed into surfaces, sur- 

faces into lines, lines into points. Every body 
expresses the number four; surface is three, the 
line is two on account of its two ends, and the 
point is one. Ten is the perfect number because 
it is the sum of the numbers from one to four. 

2. Music. Relation of notes worked out mathemati- 

cally, thus giving science of music. 

3. Astronomy. The perfect number ten is the basis of 

the arrangement of the heavenly bodies. The 
earth is a sphere ; central fire in the center of the 
universe; bodies revolve from west to east. The 
motion of the bodies is regulated by mathematical 
laws, and that exactness of velocity is harmony. 

4. Geometry. The Pythagorean proposition discovered. 

The square of the hypothenuse of a right-angle 
triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the 
other two sides. 

5. Ethics. Supreme good of man is to become godlike. 

This assimilation is secured by virtue, and virtue 
51 



EARLY PHILOSOPHERS AND THE SOPHISTS 

is harmony secured by balancing the faculties. 
Subordinate the lower to the higher. This har- 
mony can be secured through knowledge, asceti- 
cism, music and gymnastics. 
6. Nature. A philosophy of nature under thoroughly 
religious aspects. Particular importance is in 
directing Greek thought to calmer, deeper moral 
worth. Pythagoras himself believed in trans- 
migration of souls (metempsychosis), a future 
life, and retribution. 

88. Sophists (450 to 400 B. C.) 

1. The aristocratic tendency of the Pythagoreans 

caused a mob hatred to develop, and the school 
had to be suppressed. The philosophers were 
scattered through Greece. Another condition un- 
favorable to philosophic thought was the new idea 
of individual freedom resulting from the battle 
of Marathon. It was then that the sophists ap- 
pealed to receptive listeners. 

2. The word sophist means wise man. The early teach- 

ers were given this name because wisdom was 
the content of their teaching. The first sophists 
went from city to city, gathered young men 
about them, and taught for certain fees. Later, 
the sophists rented rooms in the gymnasia or in 
the public squares. The subject-matter of in- 
struction was mostly rhetoric as exemplified in 
the art of convincing by speaking, but the sub- 
jects are usually listed as grammar, poetry, style, 
oratory and mathematics. 

3. Pupils were usually the ephebes. 

52 



EARLY PHILOSOPHERS AND THE SOPHISTS 

4. Leading sophists. Protagoras of Abdera, the indi- 

vidualist ; Georgias of Leontini, the nihilist ; Hip- 
pias of Elis, the polymathist; and Prodicus of 
Ceos, the moralist. 

5. Results. 

1. Argument exalted over truth and right. 

2. Disregard of the old, philosophical search 

after truth. 

3. Disregard for the old religion and social dis- 

cipline. New view of practical usefulness 
in life. 

4. Threatened weakness and disintegration of 

the state. Individualism, or the absolute 
freedom of the individual, made emphatic. 

5. Helped change the ephebic education from 

formal routine based on custom to unre- 
stricted development of a higher type; 
physical and political aspects yielded to 
moral culture under the literary aspect. 
The rhetorical and grammatical study of 
language and literature is the result of 
that transition. 



53 



Chapter XIV 

THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 
SOCRATES, PLATO, ARISTOTLE 

The Greek educational theorists include the follow- 
ing: 

Pythagoras, 582-500 B. C. Section 87. 

Sophists. Section 88. 

Socrates, 469-399 B. C. 

Xenophon, 434-357 B. C. 

Plato, 427-347 B. C. 

Aristotle, 384-322 B. C. 

/. Socrates (469-399 B. C.) 

89. Motto. 

''Know thyself." From the study of the objective 
world, our environment, we should turn to the study of 
self. By observing and reflecting on our own mental 
activities, we can ascertain the conditions of knowledge, 
form concepts in the right way, and thus scientifically 
classify the principles of conduct and the principles of 
knowledge. 

Socrates took this position to try to clarify conflicting 
notions in education. The Pythagoreans worked out a 
scheme of socialism which was rejected by the people. 
The sophists put emphasis upon sensations and emo- 

54 



THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 

tions, and questioned the validity of general truth ; some 
denied the possibility of knowledge. Socrates set out to 
reconcile these views by showing that valid knowledge 
can be acquired as concepts if the process of thinking 
is right. 

90. Fundamental principle. 

'^ Knowledge is virtue." There are ideas that possess 
universal validity, and a life will be virtuous if it is 
guided by that universal knowledge instead of by mere 
individual opinion. Education should aim, therefore, to 
develop individual power of thought that will lead to 
the guiding principles of conduct, not to superficial in- 
formation and glibness of speech such as the sophists 
exalted. Under this view, Socrates put validity into the 
words of Protagoras, the sophist, ''Man is the measure 
of all things." Every individual has latent or developed 
power to know and to desire to enjoy such life virtues 
as honesty, truthfulness, fidelity and wisdom. 

91. The Socratic method. 

1. The negative stage. Socrates assumed a humble 
attitude as if he desired knowledge. His method was 
conversational, but direct statements were avoided. The 
answer to each question was the basis for the next ques- 
tion, and the process was continued until the consecu- 
tive answers ended in a confession of ignorance. The 
pretended deference of Socrates is known as Socratic 
irony. 

2. The positive stage. The second series of questions 
led to the discovery of the truth. These questions caused 
the pupil to consider instances one by one and combine 

56 



THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 

them inductively into a concept or general notion. This 
stage or process was called maieutic by Socrates, i. e., 
giving birth to ideas. 

3. Heuristic method. The Avhole method is heuristic, 
or a way of discovering or finding. Spencer calls the 
method of discovery an empirical method. The Socratic 
method is, furthermore, an inductive method resulting 
in a definition. 

4. Illustrations. See McEvoy's MetJiods in Educa- 
tion, page 82. Following is a suggestive application : — 

Teacher. What is a straight line? 

Fupil. A line that doesn't slant. 

T. (draws a slanting line on the board). Is that a 
straight line? 

P. Yes. 

T. Does that line slant? 

P. It does slant. 

T. Do you still hold to your definition? 

P. No, it is not accurate. 

T. Why not? 

P. A slanting line may be a straight line. 

T. AVhat, then, is a straight line ? 

P. The shortest distance between two points is a 
straight line. 

5. Specific value. Knowledge can be classified as 
concepts possessing universal validity if sense-impres- 
sions are grouped according to the laws of thought, 
rather than according to the sound of rhetoric. 

92. Influence of Socratic method. 

1. Emphasis on knowledge that related to practical life 
and possessed moral worth. 
58 



THE SCHOOLS OF THE PmLOSOPHERS 

2. In place of the formal lecture method of the sophists, 
the conversational method aimed to generate 
power of thinking. 

93. Limitations of the Socratic method. 

1. It is adequate when it is applied to the formation 

of ethical truths since such experiences are for 
every individual. 

2. It is not applicable when applied to subjects wherein 

the content is not given by the experience of the 
individual, such as mathematics, science, history, 
language and literature. In these, one's own ex- 
perience is too narrow for a correct conclusion. 

3. Socrates and Plato recognized the dialectic method 

for its value as a process in developing power, 
but some of their successors tried to give it uni- 
versal application and thus gave themselves over 
to endless discussions relating to distinctions in- 
stead of to the validity of the thought contained. 
When this method was given permanent form in 
the science of logic first formulated by Aristotle, 
it became the basis of an entirely new conception 
of education, namely, education as discipline. 

94. Place of instruction; pupils. 

Wherever he met people. Two noted pupils were 
Plato and Xenophon. 

95. Doctrines. 

1. Immortality of the soul. 

2. There is one Supreme Being, the intelligent Creator 

of the universe. 

60 



THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 

II. Xenophon (431 to 357 B. C.) 

96. Born in Athens, pupil of Socrates, soldier in 
Persian wars, became writer on history and philosophy. 

1. Writings on education. 

Cycropedia. Description of Persian education, but 
really a plea for Spartan education modified by the cul- 
tural ideals of Athens. 

Economics. Training of wife for domestic efficiency. 
No intellectual training advocated. 

2. Writings on history and philosophy. 

Anabasis 

Hellenica 

Agesilaiis 

Memorahilia 
Xenophon 's purpose was to counteract the individu- 
alistic doctrines of the sophists by exalting ideal life 
such as the Athenians might exemplify. 



///. Flato (427 to 347 B. C.) 

97. Definition of education. 

''A good education is that which gives to the body 
and to the soul all the beauty and all the perfection of 
which they are capable." 

98. Name of school. 

The Academy; founded when Plato was forty. 

99. Writings. 

1. Repuhlic, a description of the ideal state and the 
proper education therefor. 
61 



THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 

a. He considered the state as one living being. 

&. Based upon a psychological analysis of the 
individual whose soul has three facul- 
ties: intellect or reason; spirit or cour- 
age; desire or appetite. 

c. In the state the merchants and producers 
represent its appetite; the soldiers, its 
spirit; the philosophers, its intellect. 

2. Laws, a modification of the theoretical views in the 

Bepuhlic. The latter is socialism as a remedy 
for individualism ; while The Laws is a return to 
conservatism. 

3. Dialogues, the teachings and the conversations of 

Socrates. 

Theory as Expressed in the Bepuhlic 

100. Classes of people. 

1. The common people or industrial class, whose vir- 

tue is money-making ; no education. 

2. Guardians or citizens, the soldier class, whose virtue 

is honor; music and gymnastics. 

3. Eulers, the philosophical class, whose virtue is wis- 

dom; geometry, astronomy, rhetoric and philoso- 
phy after elementary work. 

101. Absolute control by the state. 

1. Family life and private property abolished. 

2. Marriage controlled. 

3. Weak children killed. 

4. Healthy children with mothers in common in nurser- 

ies. 

62 



THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 

5. Playthings in education. Boys and girls treated 
alike. 

102. Periods of education. 

1. Till 7. Play, physical exercises, fairy tales, poetry, 

gentleness. 

2. 7-16 or 17. Gymnastics for harmony of body, music 

for harmony of soul. Music included literature, 
writing and arithmetic. 

3. 17-20. Ephebes, military gymnastic training. See 

75. 

4. At twenty, promising youths selected for study of 

mathematics, astronomy, harmony and science. 

5. At thirty, another selection for five years more of 

study. 

6. 35-50. Serve the state. After 50 return to study of 

philosophy. 

103. Summary and criticisms. 

1. Plato originated a theory of ideas. Universal truths 

called ideas. Such ideas come from a world inde- 
pendent and above the world of sense. 

2. Soul immortal and had prior existence in high state. 

Memory of former high state produces eagerness 
to attain knowledge of truth. 

3. State control of education; compulsory for all be- 

tween ten and sixteen. 

4. Homeric poems should be expurgated ; music and 

literature censored by the state. 

5. Harmonious cooperation of all the powers of man. 

6. There should be no forcing of the intellect in edu- 

cation. Adapt work to pupils. 
64 



THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 

7. Education should determine vocations and fit citi- 

zens therefor. 

8. The first scientific and systematic scheme of educa- 

tion is history. 

IV. Aristotle (384-322 B. C.) 

104. Plato's pupil. 

Studied under Plato nearly twenty years. Alexander 
the Great was Aristotle's pupil. 

105. Aristotle's school. 

Lyceum in Athens. Called peripatetic school because 
Aristotle walked under the covered pathways as he 
taught. Peripatetic means walking about, and peripatos 
means covered walk. Aristotle is known as the Peri- 
patetic Philosopher, the Stagirite, because he was born 
in Stagira in Macedonia, and as the greatest mind of 
antiquity. He was fifty years old when he founded the 
Lyceum. 

106. Aim. 

To develop imperfect, untrained children into strong, 
patriotic citizens. 

107. Writings. 

1. Ethics. 

2. Politics, his educational scheme. 

3. Other writings dealt with morals, logic, rhetoric, 

psychology, physics, metaphysics, zoology and 
other subjects. 

66 



THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 

108. Pedagogy. 

1. Education is a lifelong task. 

2. Pedagog}^ based upon a knowledge of the individual. 

3. Until 7, humane, physical education at home. 

4. From 7 to 14. Thorough intellectual training. 

5. From 14 to 21. Direct preparation for life. Severe 

physical training for war. 

6. Women educated to train future citizens. 

7. Natural method, inductive and deductive ; concrete 

to abstract. 

109. Summary. 

1. The greatest intellect of antiquity. 

2. Agrees with Plato that the highest of all arts is 

Politics — the art of directing society to produce 
the greatest good for mankind. 

3. Success in directing society requires properly dis- 

posed group of citizens. Function of education 
is to produce such proper disposition. 

4. Care of morals of children should be in the hands 

of the government and of parents, not in the 
hands of slaves. 

5. Gymnastic training is for harmonious educational 

effect, not for superiority in athletics. 

6. Use literature. Plato banished the poets. 

7. Formulated the new science of esthetics. 

8. Music approved. 

a. Amusement, a form of relaxation. 
h. A form of intellectual enjoyment. 
c. It possesses a moral value. 

9. All citizens educated, but effects will vary. 

10. Used inductive method of research in his own work. 

68 



THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 



11. 



Wrote on inductive method in education, but fa- 
vored the deductive method for tested validity. 
The inductive method is uncertain beyond our 
tested instances; the deductive method is uni- 
versally valid if the rules of the syllogism are ob- 
served. 

Aristotle is the first great scientist; the greatest 
systematizer, in fact, that the world has ever 
known." (Monroe, p. 158.) 



110. Comparison of Plato and Aristotle. 



PLATO 

1. Outlined an ideal 1. 

scheme of education. 

2. Value of ideas to the in- 2. 

dividual. 

3. Intellect exalted. 3. 



4. Philosophic method. 4. 

5. Education a fixed proc- 5. 

ess. 

6. Music in the narrow 6. 

sense. 



7. Sought truth for its 7. 
formal value. 

70 



ARISTOTLE 

Gave principles for at- 
taining such an ideal. 

Value of ideas to the 
race. 

Will emphasized. In- 
tellect and will united. 
Happiness is the re- 
sult of knowledge 
passing into action. 

Objective and scientific 
method. 

Education a constant 
development. 

]\Tusic in the broad sense 
of liberal, intellectual 
training. 

Sought truth in the ex- 
perience of the race 



THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 

PLATO ARISTOTLE 

and thereby devel- 
oped the inductive 
process. This he ap- 
plied objectively and 
subjectively, while the 
Socratic method used 
only the latter. Here 
for the first time in 
education the induc- 
tive and the deduc- 
tive processes were 
consciously used as 
methods of proced- 
ure. Using the in- 
ductive process more 
than any other man 
prior to Francis Ba- 
con, Aristotle ''be- 
came the father of 
practically all of the 
modern sciences. ' ' 
(Monroe, p. 154.) 



71 



Chapter XV 
ROME— EDUCATION FOR EFFICIENCY 

The Roman ideal of efficiency is contrasted with the 
Greek ideal of culture and the contrast brings out the 
national differences. The Greeks were idealists follow- 
ing present enjoyment of the good, the beautiful and 
the true; the Romans were utilitarians preparing for 
the future. The Greeks developed according to reason; 
the Romans lived by authority. The Greeks were stu- 
dents of nature and their gods were close to human 
types; the Romans developed polytheism, but they did 
not deify nature in detail nor were their gods like 
human beings. The Greeks were poetic in their con- 
ceptions ; the Romans were sternly practical in their in- 
terpretations. 

The worship of the Romans consisted of prescribed 
ceremonies to satisfy the gods. The prayers, sacrifices 
and games dominated the trend of education. In pri- 
vate life, both education and religion were in charge of 
the head of the family ; in matters of public welfare, re- 
ligious cerepaonies were conducted by the state. 

The periods of Roman history referred to in the his- 
tory of education are as follows: — 

753 ( ?) to 509 B. C. Mythical period of kings. 

509 to 29 B. C. Republic. Period of developing the 
constitution by struggles between the patricians, or citi- 
zens with full political rights, and plebeians, or free in- 

73 



ROME— EDUCATION FOR EFFICIENCY 

habitants without political rights (509 to 264). Laws 
of Twelve Tables, which were used as subject-matter in 
education, 450 B. C. Central and Lower Italy sub- 
jugated. During second part (264 to 146 B. C.) oc- 
curred the great wars of conquest of the East, Spain 
and Gaul. Greece became a Roman province 146 B. C. 

29 B. C. to 476 A. D. Empire. Sway of Roman 
Cassars down to fall of Roman Empire of the west. 

Augustus, 29 B. C. to 14 A. D. Golden Age of Litera- 
ture. The great poets: Vergil, ^neid; Ovid, Metamor- 
phoses; Horace, Odes and Satires. Great historians: 
CaBsar, Gallic War; Livy, Annals of Rome; Sallust, 
Jugurthine War; Tacitus, Germania. Orator and 
philosopher: Cicero. 

/. Early Roman Education (776 to ahoiit 250 B. C.) 

111. Home. 

1. Practically the only school. 

2. Mother's worth exalted. 

3. Father was teacher and companion of boy ; high 

ideals; severe discipline. 

4. Slight literary training for religious and choral ser- 

vice. 

5. Laws of Twelve Tables. 

a. Adopted 451-450 B. C. ; basis of society. 
1). Dealt with powers and rights. 

c. Furnished ideals of education. 

d. Posted in forum and learned by boys. 

112. Schools. 

1. Latter part of period. About 260 B. C, Spurius 
Carvilius, a Greek, opened a school. The name 
74 



INTRODUCTION OF GREEK SCHOOLS 

associated with school was Indus, meaning a turn- 
ing aside from sport or play. As the develop- 
ment of Roman boys was secured by natural free- 
dom in play, the school was looked upon as some- 
thing that interfered with sport, the accepted 
means of education. 

2. Rudiments of reading, writing, arithmetic. 

3. Private ; in homes or on porches of temples. 

113. Results. 

''Virtuous, practical, robust men and women." 

11. Introduction of Greek Schools (About 250 B. C. — 
50 B. C.) 

114. Period of transition. 

1. Greek customs and ideas introduced. See 112 for 

school of Carvilius. Greek language, ideas and 
customs made known by Greek slaves. Many 
slaves employed as tutors. 

2. Livius Andronicus (about 284 to 204 B. C.) trans- 

lated Odyssey into Latin. Translation used as 
text-book. 

3. Other translations gave literary material. 

///. Grceco-Roman Education (About 100 B. C. to 
200 A. D.) 

Known as Hellenistic education. 

115. Aim. 

Polished orators and forensic pleaders. 

75 



ROME— EDUCATION FOR EFFICIENCY 

116. Schools. 

Public ; support was private. Women and slaves ex- 
cluded. 

117. Primary school. 

7-12 ; under literator. 

1. Reading. Alphabet, spelling, Latin Odyssey. 

2. Writing. Used stylus on wax after tracing on 

tablets or engraved wood. 

3. Arithmetic. Concrete calculations using fingers, 

pebbles, or abacus. Results written on tablets. 

4. Citizenship. Memorized Laws of Twelve Tables. 

5. Maxims. For dictation, composition, memory. 

6. Strictly Roman training; literator not respected. 

118. Secondary education. 

1. Pupils 12-16; under grammaticus or literatus. 

Literary training in grammar school. 

2. Two kinds: Greek and Latin instruction respec- 

tively. 

3. Grammar literature oratory 
rhetoric history philosophy 

4. Processes in method. 

a. Memorizing choice literature. 

h. Reproduction of fables and stories. 

c. Paraphrase of poems. 

d. Composition very important. 

e. Analysis, criticism, reconstruction and elabo- 

ration. 
/. Frequent dictation exercises. 

5. Aim. Mastery of the language; facility in reading, 

76 



NOTED ROMxVN EDUCATORS 

writing aucl speaking; and, as a means, familiar- 
ity with the best Latin and Greek authors. 
6. Greek literary ideal made practical. 

119. Higher education. 

1. Under rhetor; practical training for professional 

life. 

2. At 16, boy put on toga of manhood, the distinctive 

dress of Roman citizen. 

3. Study of rhetoric, literature, criticism, law. Prac- 

tice in declamation and debate. 

4. Technical training on farm for farmers; in mili- 

tary camp for soldiers; in law courts for law- 
yers; in senate for orators. Compare with mod- 
ern vocational training. 

IV. Noted Eoman Educators 

Marcus Tullius Cicero, Orator and Philosopher 
(106 to 43 B. C.) 

120. Cicero's pedagogy. 

1. Education is a lifelong task. 

2. Amusement should be refining. 

3. Memory trained by exact selections. 

4. No corporal punishment except as a last resort. 

5. Style (literary and oratorical) a paramount aim. 

6. Religion is the basis of morality. 

Lucius Ann^eus Seneca, Philosopher (3 B. C. to 65 
A. D.) 

121. Seneca's pedagogy. 

1. Aim of education is to overcome evil tendencies. 

2. Adapt education to individual needs. 

77 



ROME— EDUCATION FOR EFFICIENCY 

3. Environment should be pure and elevating. 

4. Do not flatter; teach obedience, modesty, etc. 

5. Thoroughness; give but few studies. 

6. Corporal punishment mild or none at all. 

7. Teacher's position highly esteemed. 

122. Quotations. 

1. "We best learn by teaching." 

2. ''We should learn for life, not for school.'' 

3. ''The result is gained sooner by example than by 

precept. ' ' 

123. Seneca's pupH. 

Nero. 

Marcus Fabius Quintilian, Teacher (35 to 95 A. D.) 

124. Biography. 

1. Born in Spain about 38 A. D. 

2. Studied in Rome and practiced law there. 

3. Opened a school of oratory. Broad grammatical 

and literary culture as a foundation for the ora- 
tor. 

4. Wrote Institutes of Oratory. 

125. Pedagogy of Quintilian. 

1. Oratory exalted ; rhetoric is climax of education. 

2. Public schools superior to private tutors. 

3. Studies should be made attractive. 

4. The work should be adapted to individuals. 

5. Memory trained by using choice selections. 

6. Concrete methods : forms and names of letters with 

objects. 

78 



NOTED ROMAN EDUCATORS 

7. No corporal punishment. 

8. Children begin foreign tongue first; their own is 

natural. 

9. Qualifications of teachers stated; high require- 

ments. 
10. Activity of the mind is natural. 

126. Summary. 

1. The first scientific treatment of the problems of edu- 

cation. 

2. The most successful Roman teacher. 

3. The first teacher to hold position with regular sal- 

ary. 
Plutarch (50 to 138 A. B.). Writer. 

127. Graeco-Roman. 

Born in Greece, lectured in Rome. 

128. Books. 

1. Lives of Illustrious Men. Arranged in parallel col- 

umns in Latin and Greek. 

2. Training of Children, the first treatise on infant 

education. 
Pliny (23 to 79 A. D.). Naturalist. 

129. Scientist. 

Investigated phenomena of nature. 

130. Death. 

Suffocated while observing Vesuvius. 

79 



ROME— EDUCATION FOR EFFICIENCY 

131. Books. 

Natural Histor^y in tliirty-seven volumes. It served 
as a Eoman Encyclopedia. 

Varro (116 to 27 B. C). Writer. 

132. Librarian. 

Appointed by Caesar. 

133. Title. 

''The most learned jnan in Rome." 

134. Books. 

More than 600 books on various subjects. Valuable 
treatise upon agriculture. 

135. Criticism of Roman education. 

1. Honored the home and respected the mother. 

2. Instilled respect for law and obedience to authority. 

3. Recognized the value of organization. 

4. Not a state institution ; not compulsory. 

5. Superficial in trying to apply Greek culture. 

6. Aimed at practical results rather than harmonious 

development of power. 

7. Humanitas. The Seven Liberal Arts, the course of 

study organized by the monks, can be traced to 
the development of subject-matter in Roman edu- 
cation, and much of the Roman material can be 
traced to Athens. In the interpretation of the 
subjects, the Romans used the term humanitas, 
which means the study of the liberal arts, or 
those literary subjects which humanize and re- 
fine mankind. The word humanists embodies 
80 



SUMMARY OF ROMAN EDUCATION 

this idea of liberal culture. The early leaders of 
the Renaissance in Italy were called humanists, 
and the word humanities was used to designate 
classical Latin and Greek in colleges and universi- 
ties during the Middle Ages. Humanism is used 
in modern education in contradistinction to real- 
ism, the name given to the study of things such 
as physical science, geography, French and Ger- 
man. 

V. Summary of Roman Education 

The oldest period represents purely Roman ideals. 
The aim was to prepare for the duties of domestic, re- 
ligious and political life. There were no books, no 
schools ; the home, the forum and the fields helped form 
habits. Ballads, songs, recorded annals and laws were 
memorized and chanted. Piety, modesty, obedience, 
manliness, courage and honesty were resultant virtues, 
but there was no distinctive development of art, litera- 
ture and science. 

The influence of Greek life can be traced to contact 
as early as the rise of the republic in 509 B. C, but the 
first direct instruction by Greeks was not until 260 
B. C, when Spurius Carvilius opened a school in Rome. 
At that time there was no Roman literature available 
for study because there were no text-books, but Livius 
Andronicus made a Latin version of Homer's Odj^ssey 
and that book gave the Romans the first enjoyment of 
the content and spirit that had been so long an inspira- 
tion to the Greeks. The Greek language spread on ac- 
count of the work of Greek slave tutors, and in 146 

81 



ROME— EDUCATION FOR EFFICIENCY 

B. C, when Greece became a Roman province, the Ro- 
man education had become thoroughly Hellenistic or 
Greek. Much of the instruction was imparted in Greek, 
but about 100 B. C. Lucius Stilo opened a school in 
which Latin was used. Cicero and Varro Avere students 
in the Latin school. The use of Greek declined after 
the opening of Stilo 's school. 

The introduction of Greek gave literary content to 
education, but the Romans never became exponents of 
culture; they were examples of education as discipline. 
During this period the schools of the literators and the 
rhetors taught Greek grammar and rhetoric and, later, 
Latin grammar and rhetoric. 

During the period of the Roman Empire (30 B. C. to 
476 A. D.), the Romans attempted to introduce the 
Greek spirit of individualism and culture, but the Ro- 
man institutional life did not yield easily. As imi- 
tators of the Greeks, the Romans improved the form of 
Latin literature and carried on organized efforts as 
enumerated. 

1. The school of the literator taught reading, writ- 
ing, elementary arithmetic, and parts of the Latin trans- 
lation of the Odyssey. 

2. The school of the grammaticus became a recog- 
nized type of grannnar school in which either Greek or 
Latin was taught. Grammar included syntax and sub- 
ject-matter; literature covered history and science as 
well as language ; music, mathematics and dialectics also 
were appropriated from the Greeks, but music and gym- 
nastics as known in Athens were not adopted. 

3. The school of the rhetor gave a direct preparation 
for public life. Declamation, started in the grammar 

82 



DECLINE OF ROMAN EDUCATION 

school, was a combination of literary and vocational 
training. Oratory was supreme as an aim because the 
orator was the type of man of greatest use in the com- 
munity. 

4. Libraries were secured as the spoils of conquest. 
Augustus and other rulers founded libraries. 

5. Universities were associated with the libraries. 
The university of Rome was the outgrowth of the library 
founded by Vespasian (69 to 79 A. D.). The subjects 
of instruction were the liberal arts and a few technical 
studies such as architecture and mechanics. 

6. The schools were supported by the empire and the 
towns, but national supervision was lacking. Grammar 
schools and rhetorical schools Avere organized in every 
province, but universities were not common. 



VI. Decline of Eoman Education (200 to 476 A. D.) 

The effectiveness of education in general lessened as 
the Roman power declined. Soon after the opening of 
the Christian era, the decline in spirit was rapid, and 
the effect was evident in a corresponding loss in quality 
and scope of grammatical and rhetorical training. Edu- 
cation produced a caste effect by limitation to the upper 
class only, and even there the disciplinary value was re- 
placed by affectation or adornment. 

While the effectiveness of practical education declined 
with the lessening of political power, there was not 
cessation of all intellectual activity. A revival of classi- 
cal culture came in the fourth century, when Emperor 
Julian returned to paganism. The grammar of the 

83 



ROME— EDUCATION FOR EFFICIENCY 

seven liberal arts was enriched in content and organiza- 
tion by the writings of Donatus (about 400) and Pris- 
cian (about 500). Their grammatical analysis of lan- 
guage was the basis of language study for a thousand 
years. Grammarians, rhetoricians and sophists followed 
the Roman armies into the provinces, became known as 
itinerant or wandering teachers, and thus helped to dis- 
seminate some of the products of Grecian and Roman 
education. 



84 



Chapter XVI 
SUMMARY OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 

7. National Ideals 

137. Supremacy of the state. 

Individual worth measured by usefulness to the state. 
In theory Aristotle recognized value of individuals for 
their own sake. 

138. Passive types. 

China and India were passive types; self-activity im- 
possible. 

139. Active types. 

Phenicia, Persia, Egypt and Sparta were active types, 
but not permanent. Phenicia was selfish ; Persia and 
Sparta were too active in war to leave leisure time for 
culture. 

140. Harmonious development. 

Athens had the noblest ideal, but it lacked Christian 
conception of individual worth. 

141. Utility. 

Rome sought practical efficiency; good, but not broad 
enough for humanity. 

85 



SUMMARY OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 

142. Theocracy. 

Direct preparation for individual ideal of Christian 
era. The Jews also proved the value of an ideal in edu- 
cation. 

77. Suhject -Matter 

143. Alphabet from Phenieia. 

144. Notation from Hindus. 

145. Abacus used in China and Egypt. 

146. Development of grammar, rhetoric, logic, arith- 
metic, geometry, music, astronomy, etc. 

147. A literature in Greek and in Latin. 

148. Philosophy, medicine, law. 

777. Methods of Teaching 

149. Concrete methods. Abacus in China and 
Egypt for arithmetic; reading and writing so taught in 
Egypt, by Plato's Laws, and by Quintilian's Institutes. 

150. Inductive and developing methods by Socrates. 

151. Deductive method l)y Aristotle. 

152. Practical methods in rhetoric by Quintilian. 

IV. School System 

153. Organization in Rome. Consistent system of 
elementary and higher education culminating in the 
schools of Rhetoric, Philosophy, Law, and Medicine. 

86 



SUMMARY OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 

V. Butler's Spiritual Inheritances 

154. Scientific. Classifications by Aristotle, Pliny, 
Ptolemy, etc. 

155. Literary. Excellent in Greece and Rome. 

156. Esthetic. Excellent in Athens. 

157. Institutional. Some in Persia, Sparta, Ath- 
ens; best in Rome, 

158. Religious. In all nations ; Christian ideal lack- 
ing. 

VI. Pedagogical Principles 

159. State control of education. Advocated by 
Plato and Aristotle. 

160. Compulsory education. Plato, for all between 
ten and sixteen. 

161. Natural order of development. Aristotle. 

162. Associations. Pure attendants, subject-mat- 
ter, and environment. Plato and Quintilian. 

163. Teaching a dignified vocation. Some recogni- 
tion in every nation. 

164. Corporal punishment. Tendency to limitation. 

165. Adaptation to capacity. Plato, Aristotle, Sen- 
eca, Quintilian and Plutarch. 



87 



PART III 

MEDIEVAL EDUCATION 

The Christian Fathers 
The Monks 
Charlemagne 
Alfred the Great 
Chivalry 
Mohammedans 
Christian Universities 
Scholasticism 



Chapter XVII 
MEDIEVAL EDUCATION 

1 xo 1500 A. D. Education as Discipline 

Pedagogy of the Great Teacher 

Christian education is considered under two divisions, 
medieval and modern. The first period of fifteen hun- 
dred years embraces the time of transition from Greek 
and Roman ideals. The highest ideal in Greek thought 
was Aristotle's conception of happiness of the indi- 
vidual in conserving the welfare of society. As this 
ideal required intellectual efficiency, it was an aristo- 
cratic ideal since only a few were permitted to enjoy the 
full privileges of education. The Christian ideal rested 
in the moral development of man through charity or 
love that appealed to all. Thus the Greek ideal was in- 
tellectual and aristocratic ; the Christian ideal was moral 
and democratic. 

Conflict arose in attempting to harmonize the two 
ideals and there was consequent hostility between Chris- 
tianity and Greek culture. Compromises produced ad- 
vantages to Christianity, especially in methods of teach- 
ing. The Greek method of selecting themes or texts, of 
logical analysis, and of allegorical interpretation was 
adopted by the Christian Fathers. 

The influence of Roman thought was distinctly help- 

90 



MEDIEVAL EDUCATION 

ful to Christianity. In the interpretation of Stoic 
philosophy by the Romans, virtue was an aim, con- 
science was a guide, and deeds were a test of worth. 
Duty was an ethical standard and obedience was a life 
virtue. Christianity adapted these views to the con- 
duct of life and extended the conception of moral duty 
to include individual and social obligations here and 
hereafter. Ethics and morality thus controlled the in- 
terests of all mankind, and education became domi- 
nantly religious for the sake of salvation of souls. 

166. Growth of Christian ideas. 

1. Fatherhood of God. 

2. Brotherhood of man. 

3. Marriage a divine right. Wife equal to husband. 

4. Children are the gift of God. 

5. Individuality is important: man responsible to God. 

6. All education is for the individual. 

167. Pedagogy of Christ. 

1. Ideal perfection as an aim. 

2. Fundamental truth emphasized. 

3. Adaptation to hearers. 

4. Forceful illustrations. 

5. Simple, earnest, sympathetic. 

6. Mastery of questioning. 

7. Exemplified what he taught. 



92 



Chapter XVIII 
EARLY CHRISTIAN EDUCATION. TO 529 A. D. 

168. Aim. 

To prepare for future life. 

169. Obstacles. 

1. Poverty. 

2. Ignorance. 

3. Small number. 

4. Opposition of rulers. 

5. Lack of Christian literature. 

170. Schools. 

Odessa in the second century was the first one. Others 
at Antioch and Athens. 

1. Catechumen schools for converts. The cate- 
chumens were applicants for baptism and other rites in 
the Christian Church. They were taught the Lord's 
Prayer, the Apostles' Creed, the Ten Commandments 
and other portions of Scripture. The method was ques- 
tions and answers, a method called catechetical. 

2. Catechetical schools : reading, writing, religion ; 
later, the liberal arts. Famous school at Alexandria, 
Egypt, 181 A. D., developed by Panta3nus, Origen and 
others. Religion associated with university culture. 
Other schools at CiBsarea, Rome and Carthage. 

94 



EARLY CHRISTIAN EDUCATION. TO 529 A. D. 

3. Cathedral or Episcopal schools. Prepared young 
men for the priesthood. Organization perfected in 
eighth century. Priests were teachers. Parochial 
schools in parishes. 

The Christian Fathers 

171. Use of pagan literature. 

The problem of the subject-matter of instruction di- 
vided the leaders of the early Church. As all agreed 
that the mission of the Church was a moral one, they 
tried to decide whether to accept or reject Homer, Ver- 
gil, and all other parts of pagan learning. Most of the 
Greek Fathers favored its use for the good it contained, 
while the Latin Fathers maintained that there was dan- 
ger in whatever was not wholly and positively helpful 
to Christianity. 

Second and Third Centuries 

172. Clement of Alexandria, Greek. (160-215.) 

1. Use all literature and past education. 

2. Harmonize philosophy and religion; reason and 

faith. 

173. Origen, Greek. (185-254.) 

1. Teacher at eighteen at Alexandria. 

2. Most learned of the Church Fathers. 

3. Reconciled Greek culture with Christian religion. 

4. Encouraged investigation by pupils. 

174. Tertullian, Latin Father. (150-230.) 

1. Against pagan literature. 

2. Founder of Christian Latin literature. 

96 



THE CHRISTIAN FATHERS 

Fourth and Fifth Centuries 

175. St. Jerome, Latin Father. (331-423.) 

1. Translation of Bible into Latiii Vulgate. 

2. Wrote Letters on the Education of Girls. 

3. Against pagan learning. 

176. Chrysostom, Greek Father. (347-411.) 

1. Mothers are the natural educators. 

2. Teacher must adapt himself to capacity of pupils. 

3. Religious instruction is essential. 

4. Greatest pedagogue of this period. 

177. Basil the Great, Greek Father. (331-379.) 

1. Use pagan literature. 

2. The Bible, the chief text-book. 

3. Church songs and religious instruction made the 

foundation of common schools. 

Fifth Century 

178. St. Augustine, Latin Father. (354-430.) 

1. The greatest of the Church Fathers. 

2. A zealous convert. 

3. Against pagan literature. 

4. Used observation in instruction. 

5. History in narrative form is the chief subject. 

6. Writings. 

a. Confessions. This is a psychology of the soul. 
h. The City of God. 



97 



Chapter XIX 

EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

The term Middle Ages is used for the period of 
nearly a thousand years between Early Christian Edu- 
cation and The Great Renaissance. The date 529 A. D. 
is chosen for division because it stands for the suppres- 
sion of the University of Athens and the abolition of 
pagan schools by Justinian, and also for the establish- 
ment of the first Benedictine monastery at Monte Cas- 
sino, Italy. 

I. Monastic Education 

Education as Moral Discipline, 6th Century to 16th 

Century 

179. Importance of monasticism. 

See benefits following 188. 

1. A type of education for one thousand years. 

2. Only intellectual education during this period: 

6th-13th centuries, elementary; 13th-16th, uni- 
versities. 

180. Causes and occasions of monasticism. 

1. In 410, Alaric the Goth sacked Rome. This was 
followed by six centuries of unstable society in 
Europe. 

98 



MONASTICISM 

2. Persecution of Christians. 

3. Corrupt world not ruled directly by God ; therefore 

renounce world, aiid seek God in contemplation. 

4. Immediate second advent of Christ expected; spe- 

cial preparation therefor. 

5. Idea of asceticism. Asceticism is a system of moral 

training- by which perfection is sought by subju- 
gating the lower impulses, i. e., by conquering 
the desires of the body. The ascetic ideal in- 
cludes various forms of abstinence, such as celi- 
bacy, poverty, fasting and solitude. 
Two types of early asceticism are associated with 
monasticism. In Syria and Egypt, the Anchorites lived 
in retreat as hermits and used their time in contempla- 
tion. In the West, the Cenobites lived in communi- 
ties and worked systematically. Every hour is scheduled 
by regulation as in St. Benedict's Rule of Monastic 
Life. 

181. Nature of monasticism. 

1. Ideal was asceticism. Original meaning, training or 

discipline of athlete; later meaning, discipline of 
all powers for higher life. 

2. Educational ideal of asceticism was the moral and 

spiritual perfection through discipline of physical 
nature. 

3. Three ideals. 

a. Chastity. Celibacy instead of family life. 

h. Poverty. Needs of Church instead of indus- 
trial society. 

c. Obedience. Submission to God instead of the 
state. 

99 



EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

182. The monastic orders. 

1. Benedictines, founded by St. Benedict, at Monte 
Cassino, near Naples, 529. Date of abolition of 
pagan schools by Justinian. 

a. Rule : work, prayer^ teaching. 

h. Most influential in education. 

c. Monasteries famous for their educational ef- 

forts were 

Austria — Salzburg, 696. 

England — Canterbury (586), Glastonbury, 
Yarrow, Wearmouth, Malmesbury, Oxford 
(ninth century). 

France — Lyon, Tours, Paris, Rouen, Corbie, 
Bee, Clugny. 

Germany — Fulda, Hirschau, Constance, Ham- 
burg, Cologne. 

Italy — Monte Cassino (St. Benedict). 

Switzerland — St. Gall. 

Ireland — Armagh . 

d. Famous teachers: Abelard (Paris), the great- 

est; Alcuin, see 189; Boniface (Germany). 

e. Motto. "Love the study of the Scriptures and 

you will not love vice. ' ' 
/. Their great monasteries were at once fortresses 
against crime, refuges for the oppressed, 
centers of instruction for the people, the free 
home of the sciences, archives of literature, 
schools for the young, universities for the 
learned, chanceries for kings, seminaries for 
priests, schools of agriculture, of manufac- 
ture, of music, architecture, and painting. 
Nor was the education of girls neglected. 
100 



THE SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS 

The nuns of St. Clare were as active in 
teaching as their brother monks. — Browning, 
Educational Theories, p. 46. 

2. Franciscans, founded by St. Francis, 1182. Duns 

Scotus, famous representative. Emphasized the 
will. 

3. Dominicans, founded by St. Dominic, 1216. Thomas 

Aquinas, ''the Angelic Doctor," representative. 
See 223. Emphasized intellect. 

4. Cistercians founded in 1098. Asceticism carried to 

extreme : absolute silence, solitary life as far as 
possible, rigid enforcement of ascetic rules in 
ceremonials. 

183. Educational work of the monks. 

1. Copying manuscripts and thus preserving learning. 

2. Collecting and keeping manuscripts : libraries. 

3. Writing chronicles, comments, lives of religious men 

and women. 

4. Teaching. 

184. The Seven Liberal Arts. 
A course of study. 

'grammar 
rhetoric 
logic 

'arithmetic 
geometry 
music 
astronomy 
IMentioned by Plato, Quint ilian, St. Augustine and 
others, but definitely organized as a course of 
study by the monks. 

101 



1. Trivium- 



Quadrivium 



EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

3. Content of the Seven Liberal Arts. 

a. Grammar, principally Latin, some Greek and 
Hebrew; explanation of some well-known 
writers, learning of prosody, etymology, 
and correct expression. Here is germ of 
humanism. 

h. Rhetoric from Quintilian and Cicero. 

c. Logic, dialectic from Aristotle. 

d. Arithmetic, mostly secret property of num- 

bers. 

e. Geometry, from Euclid, included some 

geography. 

/. Music emphasized. 

g. Astronomy, names and courses of stars; re- 
lation to festivals; the only natural sci- 
ence ; related to astrology. 

185. Methods of teaching. 

Few text-books; teacher dictated lessons; pupils cop- 
ied on wax tablets, then memorized. 

186. Female education. 

St. Benedict's sister, known as Sister Scholastica, es- 
tablished an institution for women. 



English Representatives 

187. Aldhelm. (640-709.) 
Bishop of Sherborne. 

1. Studied in Ireland, France, Italy, Canterbury. 

2. First Englishman to write in Latin. 

3. Wrote sonnets, sermons and epistles in Saxon. 

102 



BENEFITS OF MONASTICISM 

4. Books on arithmetic, astrology, history, religion and 

Latin prosody. 

5. Poet and mnsician. His songs a medium of instruc- 

tion. 

6. Abbot of Malmesbury monastery. 

188. Bede (about 673-735). Writer. 

1. Educated at monasteries of Wearmouth and Yarrow 

under Biscop. 

2. Ordained priest at 30. 

3. Studied Latin, Greek, Hebrew. 

4. Wrote History of the English People. In five 

books; now a source-book on England down to 
731 A. D. 

5. Other writings: Ecclesiastical History; books on 

grammar and "chronology ; sermons, hymns, epi- 
grams ; commentaries on Old and New Testament ; 
translation of Gospel of St. John into Saxon. 

6. Greatest name in literature of Saxon England. 

Benefits of Monasticism 

1. The monks were missionaries, and thus the Church 

controlled the fierce northern barbarians. 

2. The monks were copyists who gathered, multiplied, 

and preserved ancient manuscripts of classic 
literature. 

3. The monks were teachers and the monasteries were 

the schools of the Middle Ages. They thus kept 
up educational interest. 

4. The monasteries were the inns, the almshouses, the 

asylums, and the hospitals of medieval Europe. 

5. The Benedictines became agriculturalists and taught 

103 



EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

this industry. Benedictine nuns founded schools 
for girls. 
6. Music^ painting, architecture, stimulated; large 
libraries founded; universities established. 

II. Period of Charlemagne, 800 to 900 

The First Benaissance 

The principal influence in the revival of learning dur- 
ing this period of education was the enthusiastic work 
of the monks from Ireland, Scotland and England. 
Many zealous missionaries were prepared in the monas- 
teries founded in Ireland after the conversion by St. 
Patrick in 432 A. D. Those missionaries founded schools 
in various parts of the British Isles and Europe. Credit 
is given for the work of St. Columba of lona in Scot- 
land; the monasteries of York, Yarrow and Wear- 
mouth in England; the organized efforts of Theodore 
of Tarsus, the archbishop of Canterbury in southern 
England; widespread conversion of the inhabitants of 
France; and the founding of schools by St. Boniface 
in Germany. Such was the zeal in education and re- 
ligion when Charlemagne became ruler of the Frankish 
domain in 771 A. D. He perceived the necessity of edu- 
cation as a means of unifying the people under his 
jurisdiction, and he decided to make use of the organi- 
zation of the Church in combining religion and educa- 
tion of his people. 

189. Charlemagne (742-814). 
1. Crowned Emperor of Rome by Pope Leo III, Christ- 
mas, 800. 

104 



EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

2. Euled France, Germany, parts of England, Austria, 

Italy. 

3. Capital, Aix-la-Cliapelle ; nominal capital, Rome. 

4. Aim was to reorganize Roman Empire under the 

Christian religion. 

190. Charlemagne's work. 

1. Founded schools, secured best teachers. 

2. Favored increased education of the clergy. 

3. Favored secular instruction in monasteries. 

4. Realized the value of a national system of universal, 

compulsory education. 

5. Used German for Lord 's Prayer, Apostles ' Creed ; 

tried to develop German language. 

6. Became a student and learned Latin, Greek, gram- 

mar, rhetoric, music, astronomy, and natural his- 
tory. 

191. Alcuin (735-804). 

1. Most learned man of his age ; a Benedictine monk 

at York; invited to court by Charlemagne. 

2. Founded Imperial School of the Palace : Palatine 

school for royalty. 

3. Subjects. Some liberal arts plus some other work. 

4. First minister of public instruction in France. 

5. Method. Catechetical; his own answers served as 

maxims. 

6. Wrote on grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, 

seven liberal arts. 

192. Rabanus Maurus (776-856). 

1. Ablest and most noted pupil of Alcuin. 

2. Abbot of Fulda, Germany. 

106 



ALFRED THE GREAT 

3. Compiled an encyclopedia. 

4. Knew Greek, but preferred dialectic wliicli lie called 

''the science of sciences, which teaches us how to 
teach and how to learn. ' ' 

5. Wrote important treatise upon the Education of the 

Clergy^ covering the entire field of education of 
his time. 

193. Joannes Scotus Erigena (about 810 to a])out 
875). 

1. Successor of Alcuin in the Palace School. 

2. Broad knowledge of the Greek language and the 

Greek Fathers. 

3. The work of Maurus and Scotus leads directly to 

scholasticism. 

194. Alfred the Great in England (858 to 901). 

1. Became king of the western Saxons in 871. 

2. United kingdoms; made foundations of navy. 

3. Made laws: established foundations of English in- 

stitutions. 

4. Translated works into Anglo-Saxon, especially 

Bede's History of the English People and the 
Consolations of Philosophy of Boethiiis. Thus 
he helped the language. 

5. Encouraged education of the higher classes and pos- 

sibly laid foundation of Oxford University. 

6. j\Iethodical habits: Eight hours to government, 

eight hours to religious devotion and study, eight 
hours to sleep, recreation and amusement. 

7. Influenced by Charlemagne. Note that Alfred neg- 

lected the education of the lower classes. 
107 



EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

III. The Period of Chivalry or Feudalism (900-1200) 

Education as Social Discipline 

I. Feudalism 

195. Aims. 

1. To adjust individuals to service in the community. 

2. To promote secular education by getting away from 

the monastic ideal of asceticism. This life should 
be full of happiness. 

3. To exalt woman by giving her recognition in the so- 

cial organization. To do this, girls should be 
trained and boys should be habituated to life 
virtues of purity, loyalty, love and honor. 

196. Development of ideals. 

Monastic education, largely religious, prepared for 
living while aiming at the future life; Charlemagne 
tried to organize an empire controlling education for 
this life and the hereafter; feudalism tried to secure 
actual preparation for this life. Compare Dewey's so- 
ciological view of education. 

197. Authority in education. 

Education controlled by Church ; no state schools ; in- 
struction in castles. 

198. Perfections of a Knight. 

Seven perfections of a knight : horsemanship, swords- 
manship^ swimming, use of bow and arrow, hunting, 
chess and verse-making. 

These prepared for service in this life, i. e., secular 

108 



I 



EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

or social usefulness ; monastic education prepared for re- 
ligious service in the Churcli and the future life. 

199. Three periods of a knight's education. 

1. Till 7, home; mother; health and courtesy. 

2. 7-14, page; music, poetry, chess and some study. 

3. 14-21, esquire, attended master, learned arts of war, 

hunting, fencing, etc. Recall ephebic period of 
the Greeks and the Roman initiation into citizen- 
ship. 

200. Girls at home. 

Domestic arts, etiquette, reading, writing, poetry; 
some took music, French, Latin. Results commendable. 



201. Criticism of feudal education. 

1. Woman highly honored. 

2. Manly virtues inculcated. 

3. Minnesingers contributed to literature. 

4. Not universal; neglected the intellect. 

//. Crusades (1096 to 1273) 

202. Meaning. 

The crusades were efforts by the European Chris- 
tians to rescue the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem from 
the Mohammedans. The leaders were Peter the Hermit, 
Godfrey of Bouillon, Conrad III, Louis VII, Richard 
the Lion-Hearted, Barbarossa. 

203. Some of the results. 

1. Downfall of feudalism. 

2. Commercial enterprise: Venice and Genoa. 

110 



MOHAMMEDANS 

3. Desire for travel and discovery. 

4. Thought awakened by contact with the East. 

5. Feeling of unity of nations in one purpose. 

IV. Mohammedan Education 

204. Mohammedanism or Islam. 

Dates from 622, Flight from Mecca. Mohammed 
(570 to 632 A. D.), the founder, had contact with Jews, 
Christians and other religious sects in Arabia and Syria. 
He felt himself called to lead his people and furnish 
them a guiding book. 

205. Koran. 

This sacred book of Mohammedanism is ascribed to a 
special communication from Allah to Mohammed. It 
is a composition of Plebrew, Christian and Arabian tra- 
ditions. While it is the work of Mohammed, it was not 
put into form until after his death. Its principal doc- 
trines are one God and unconditional predestination. 

206. Activities. 

The Mohammedans became warriors, conquerors and 
then educators. Their zeal amounted to fanaticism. 

207. Schools. 

In many towns and cities in Europe, Asia and Africa. 
Universities in Bagdad and other cities in the East; 
Cordova, Grenada and Seville in Spain. The works 
of Greek philosophers, physicians and mathematicians 
were translated into Arabic in the schools of Bagdad and 
neighboring cities. Noted educators built up centers of 

111 



EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

learning that attracted students from three continents, 
and those institutions held sway for nearly three cen- 
turies following 850. There a group of famous schol- 
ars, known as "Brothers of Sincerity," tried to combat 
the fanaticism of Islam by planning a complete scheme 
of education based on science and leading to social har- 
mony such as the Pythagorean philosophers desired to 
secure. The scheme covered mathematics, logic, natural 
sciences, law and theology, thus embracing the best 
from Greeks, Eomans, Hindus, Arabs and other national 
sources. 

208. Elementary schools. 

1. For boys and girls. 

2. Koran the main study. Reading and writing taught. 

209. Higher schools. 

Mathematics, astronomy, grammar, philosophy, chem- 
istry, etc., taught. 

210. Influence. 

1. They preserved and transmitted the philosophy of 

Aristotle. 

2. They translated the works of Euclid ; remodeled the 

algebra of the Greeks and Hindus into modern 
form; founded a new trigonometry on the Greek 
basis and gave a knowledge of arithmetical nota- 
tion to the West. 

3. They added much to the knowledge of medicine, sur- 

gery, pharmacy, astronomy, physiology, chemis- 
try and physics. 

4. They constructed astronomical tables, invented the 

112 



EARLY CHRISTIAN UiNIVERSITIES 

pendulum clock, and improved inventions in 
navigation and commerce. 

5. Tliey introduced the use of rice, sugar, cotton, and 

tlie cultivation of silk. 

6. They stimulated the Christians to establish rival 

institutions for secondary education. 

V. Early Christian Universities 

211. Origin. 

1. Scholastic interest in dialectic of scholasticism. 

2. Migrations of the Teutons ceased in the eleventh 

century, permitting stable civilization. 

3. Development of commercial enterprise and munici- 

pal government in Italy. 

4. Stimulation of Saracenic learning by contact in 

crusades. 

5. Direct outgrowth of monastic schools. 

212. Organization. 

1. Charters conferred by Pope or rulers. 

2. Democratic government. Student control in south- 

ern universities. 

213. Privileges. 

1. Exemption from general militarj^ service. 

2. Internal jurisdiction held by the university itself. 

3. The degree was a license to teach. 

214. Faculties. 

The subject-matter of instruction included four de- 
partments. 

1. Law. 

2. Medicine. 

113 



EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

3. Philosophy. 

4. Theology. 

215. Names. 

1. Salerno, Italy, 1060; medicine. 

2. Bologna, Italy; law. 

3. Paris, greatest of the middle ages; Abelard, the 

most popular teacher. 

4. England— Oxford, 1140 ; Cambridge, 1200. 

5. Germany — Prague, 1348; Heidelberg, Leipsie. 

6. France — Paris, Toulouse, Orleans, etc. 

7. Austria — Vienna, 1365. 

8. Sweden — Lund, Upsala. 

9. Norway — Christiania. 
10. Denmark — Copenhagen. 

VI. Scholasticism (9th-16th Centuries) 
The Second Benaissance 

Education as Intellectual Discipline 

216. Definition. 

Scholasticism was an educational movement to recon- 
cile philosophy and Christian doctrines. 

217. Time. 

Ninth-15th centuries ; climax, llth-13th ; Abelard, 
teacher at Paris; Aquinas, philosopher; Roger Bacon, 
the Franciscan investigator. 

218. Monks. 

The Schoolmen or Scholastics were monks. Scholastic, 
derived from seholasticus, the name of an authorized 
teacher in a monastic school. 

114 



SCHOLASTICISM 

219. Purpose. 

1. Stated in 216. 

2. Heretical views had to be met by argument. 

3. Reason questioned authority in religion. 

4. Scotus and IMaurus had aroused intellectual activ- 

ity. 

5. The Crusades had stimulated new thought. 

6. Students returning from Saracenic universities 

were advocating the pagan interpretation of Aris- 
totle. Scholasticism aimed to guide the process 
of thinking so that students could uphold or jus- 
tify Christianity by reasoning according to logic 
and philosoph}^. Recall the work of Socrates in 
teaching men how to think. 

7. Scholasticism sought to satisfy the new conditions 

by making reason support faith. For this it was 
necessary 

a. To give knowledge a scientific classification. 

h. To give individuals a mastery of systema- 
tized knowledge. 

220. Form of scholastic knowledge. 

1. Ideal was logical perfection according to deductive 

method of Aristotle ; not adapted to immature 
minds. 

2. Prior to this time, catechetical (question and an- 

swer) arrangement of subject-matter. 

3. Early scholasticism used dialogue method and also 

catechetical method. 

4. Perfected scholasticism required arrangement "rig- 

idly scientific in form though wholly deductive in 
character. ' ' 

115 



EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

221. The method of scholasticism. 

1. Logical analysis into parts, heads, subheads, sub- 

divisions, etc., according to the logic of Aristotle. 

2. The freer method of stating a proposition, consid- 

ering several interpretations and the difficulties 
of each interpretation and then forming a con- 
clusion. This method more stimulating than 
strict logical analysis. 

3. Abelard stated his theories as questions instead of 

propositions; as ''Is God the author of evil, or 
no ? " This method aroused individual interest. 

222. Syllogism. 

The syllogism was the process of reasoning em- 
ployed. A syllogism is a form of deductive reasoning 
by which a valid conclusion is formed from two valid 
premises. 

Major premise. All men are mortal. 

Minor premise. Aquinas is a man. 

Conclimon. Aquinas is mortal. 

Contrast this with the inductive method advocated by 
Francis Bacon in the seventeenth century. The induc- 
tive method makes use of several observations and then 
formulates a rule or law covering the agreement ob- 
served. For treatment of induction and deduction, con- 
sult McEvoy's Methods in Education, page 91. 

223. Representative schoolmen. 

1. Abelard, eloquent teacher at Paris. Benedictine. 

(1079-1142). 

2. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), the Angelic Doctor; 

a Dominican ; emphasized the intellect. Gradu- 
116 



EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

ated from Paris, 1248. Taught in Cologne, Paris, 
Eome, Naples. 

a. Wrote De Magistro, Concerning the 

Teacher ; also Summa Theologiae. 
h. Theologian: a master of the deductive 
method of Aristotle and its application 
to theology. 
c. Authority on Christian philosophy. 

3. Duns Scotus (1271-1308), Franciscan; the ivill. 

4. Albertus Magnus (1193-1280). Dominican teacher 

of Aquinas at Cologne and Paris. 

VII. Mysticism 

The mystic phase of education as discipline is placed 
in the period of scholasticism and associated in particu- 
lar with St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1091 to 1153). Mys- 
ticism is a tendency of the mind toward the supernatu- 
ral, or an effort of the soul to come into actual com- 
munion with God. This direct and immediate blend- 
ing of divine and human is secured by training the soul 
by use of imagination and contemplation. In this sense, 
mysticism is related to asceticism of monastic training. 

The psychology of mysticism shows the pedagogy. 
The soul, which is spiritual and immortal, has threefold 
nature: {a) the lowest or animal part is a part of the 
body; (h) the reasoning or logical part is distinctly the 
human part; (c) the spiritual or superhuman part is 
identified with the divine. These three stages of experi- 
ence imply adapted training in education and religion. 
The first stage is purgation or purification, as suggested 
by Pythagoras, Aristotle and asceticism of the monks. 

118 



BURGHER SCHOOLS 

The second stage is the perfection of the inner life by 
thinking and doing under religions guidance. The third 
stage was continual approximation to the life of God bj^ 
contemplation. The assimilation of human and divine 
was a state of ecstasy. 

]\lysticism represents reaction against the extreme ap- 
peal to reason by Abelard of Paris. It is exaltation of 
imagination in the work of salvation. ''If thou wishest 
to search out the deep things of God, search out the 
depths of thine own nature." 

References. Monroe's Text-Booh on History of Edu- 
cation, 279; Turner's History of Philosophy, 302. 

VIII. Other Types of Schools 
Burgher or Guild Schools 

This type of school was developed as free cities arose 
and artisan classes rose in social rank. The aim was to 
increase the effectiveness of instruction in technical in- 
struction and to assure the desired development of citi- 
zens. The priests were usually the teachers and they 
received compensation from merchant and craft guilds. 
Some laymen were employed as teachers ; and there were 
wandering scholars or mendicant monks secured for 
temporary service. The matter of instruction included 
the Seven Liberal Arts, a little natural science, Latin, 
and probably the mother tongue. 

Town Schools 

Consolidation of burgher schools, parish schools and 
private schools often secured better support, better or- 

119 



EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

ganization and better results under support and super- 
vision of towns or cities. The improvement in instruc- 
tion conformed to developing economic interests. 

Charity Schools 

A type of episcopal schools but better because the 
priest received endowment for the school. Such support 
or legacy insured permanency and quality of teaching. 

IX. Summary of Progress op the Middle Ages 

1. Importance of the individual recognized by Chris- 

tianity. 

2. Education controlled by Church, except under 

Charlemagne. 

3. Church Fathers were leaders; monks and priests 

were the principal teachers. Great influence 
upon masses at large. 

4. Crusades checked feudalism, and aroused the peo- 

ple to a broader conception of man's power and 
duty. 

5. Many universities founded. 

6. Scholasticism defended the Christian faith against 

those who attempted to upset religious doctrines 
by the use of pagan philosophy. Use of the de- 
ductive method of Aristotle. 

7. Benefits of monasticism. See following 188. 

8. Woman honored and fairly well educated. 

9. Model principles of pedagogy in Christ's teaching. 
10. Seven Liberal Arts, a course of study for ele- 
mentary schools; faculties in Christian universi- 
ties — Law, Medicine, Philosophy and Theology — 
course of study in higher education. 

120 



PART IV 

MODERN EDUCATION 

Renaissance 

Humanism 

Realism 

Innovators of 17th Century 

Naturalism of 18th Century 

Psychological Tendency 

Scientific Tendency 

Sociological Tendency 

Eclectic Tendency 



Chapter XX 
MODERN EDUCATION— 1500 TO PRESENT 

The Renaissance. 1500 to 1600 

The sixteenth century is generally considered the first 
century in the period of modern education. It embraces 
the Revival of Learning, the Reformation, the Counter- 
Reformation and Realism. The invention of printing 
was the one great stimulus to all these phases of mental 
activity. 

224. The invention of printing. 

1. The art of printing was first practiced by the Chi- 

nese. The first use of printing cannot be deter- 
mined accurately, but the year 930 is sometimes 
given. 

2. The cities of Haarlem in Holland and Mentz and 

Strasburg in Germany all claim the honor of 
having been the place of the first printing in 
Europe. 

3. Laurentius (sometimes called Custer) lived in Haar- 

lem and seems to be the rival claimant. He 
worked with two brothers, the younger named 
Gutenberg. On the death of the former, about 
1440, Gutenberg moved the wooden types and 
122 



MODERN EDUCATTON— 1500 TO PRESENT 

other printing equipment to IMentz where he 
formed a partnership with John Faust. Guten- 
berg was the lirst to cast movable types in metal, 
about 1450; and in 1456 Peter Schoeffer com- 
pleted the invention by cutting the matrices to 
cast the type from. 
4. See 6 under 226. 

225. The renaissance, revival of learning, or renas- 
cence. 

Three renascences: (a) Period of Charlemagne, not 
permanent; (h) Scholasticism, powerful intellectual 
stimulation; (c) Renaissance of 16th century. 

The word renaissance is French derived from Latin 
re, again -\- imsci, to be born; hence, to be born again, 
to awaken, revival. The term is applied to the period 
of revival of art, literature and culture in Italy in the 
fourteenth century and in other parts of Europe in fif- 
teenth and sixteenth centuries. 

226. Causes. 

1. Downfall of Constantinople, 1453. Greek scholars, 

fleeing from Turks, settled in Italy and other 
parts of Europe. 

2. Crusades enlarged the views, aroused ambition, and 

led to study and invention. 

3. Decline of feudalism, independence of individuals 

and feeling of personal responsibility to govern- 
ment. 

4. Invention of gunpowder turned minds from war. 

5. Invention of mariner's coinpass turned minds to- 

ward commercial enterprises. 
124 



< 



MODERN EDUCATION— 1500 TO PRESENT 

6. Iiiventiou of printing and introduction of linen 

paper. 

a. Changed methods of teaching by supplanting 
dictation. Inquiry, investigation, research. 

h. Changed mental activity from memory to under- 
standing by lessening copying of dictation. 

c. Demanded more originality and breadth from 

professors. 

d. Developed local patronage of universities by 

lessening necessity of travel to lectures. 

e. Edition of Vergil printed in Florence in 1472. 

In 1500 there were at least 10,000 books and 
manuscripts in printed form. 

7. Development of national languages and literatures, 

such as Italian, German, French. 

8. Security of persons and property due to increasing 

stability of society and powers of government. 

9. Official intercourse among nations. 

10. The revival of interest in the direct study of Greek 

and Latin classics, especially Greek. 

11. Deventer influence through Brethren of the Com- 

mon Life. See 235. 

227. Characteristics. 

1. Individual worth in this world exalted. 

2. Use of the mother tongue, instead of Latin, as a 

written language. 

3. Growth of modern science. 

4. Increased attention to education of women. 

5. Changes in course of study. 

6. Changes in methods of teaching. 

7. Idea of universal, national, compulsory education. 

126 



THE RENAISSANCE 

228. Transition. 

Note that the transition was not abrupt. The renais- 
sance was the cumulative result of all the preceding his- 
toric conditions; and as such, it continued to utilize 
many of the ' ' old methods of thought, the old ideas and 
ideals." The one new and predominating characteristic 
was the enthusiastic devotion to ancient classic litera- 
ture. 

229. Tendencies and their educational results. 

1. Pleasure in sharing the life of the ancient Greeks 

and Eomans. Iliimanism in education. 

2. Pleasure in the things of this life; practical rather 

than philosophical and religious point of view. 
Realism in education. 

3. Appreciation of natural environment. Naturalism 

in education. 

230. Renaissance in Italy. 

1. Spirit of joy in life. 

2. Activity in securing classical manuscripts. 

3. Pioneers. See 236. 

231. Renaissance in Northern Europe. 

1. General intellectual awakening. 

2. Elizabethan literature in England. 

3.' Greek teachers in English universities. 

4. Social reform and social improvement. 

232. Educational meaning of the renaissance. 

Revival of idea of liberal education as expressed by 
the theorists in Greece and upheld by educational lead- 
ers in Rome. 

127 



MODERN EDUCATION— 1500 TO PRESENT 

1. Imitation of Christian ideals modified by Roman 

utilitarian tendencies. 

2. Hostile to the dogmatic scheme of scholasticism. 

3. The aim of education is a perfect man fitted for so- 

cial participation. 

4. Emphasis of physical training, a new element in edu- 

cation. Recall Spartan ideal. 

233. Summary. 

The new conception of the liberal education includes 
the physical, the esthetic, the moral, the literary, and the 
social;, as well as abstract, literary, theological and ec- 
clesiastical elements. 

234. The narrow humanistic education. 

1. The Greek and the Latin languages and literature 

became known as the humanities. That is, the 
studies that humanize or civilize mankind. Hu- 
manism means, then, the study of literature for 
its formal discipline rather than for its content. 
Compare with meaning of humanitas in Roman 
education. 

2. Humanistic education made little use of the physical 

and the sociological or institutional factors in 
education; it neglected history, mathematics, 
natural science, and practical training for citi- 
zenship. Observe that science was not an organ- 
ized subject at that time. Neglect in the use of 
it meant, therefore, neglect to develop it as a 
subject. 

3. Foreign languages studied before the native tongue. 

4. Memory strengthened. 

128 



HUMANISIM IN ITALY 

5. Discrimination of forms produced a dialectic power 

similar to tliat of scholasticism. 

6. Corporal punishment an incentive to work. 

Humanism in Italy 

235. Pioneers. 

1. Dante (1264 to 1321) combined the medieval and 
the modern spirit. Wrote Divine Comedy and Inferno. 

2. Petrarch (1304 to 1374) was ''the first modern 
man." He chose Cicero as master and developed a 
passionate fondness for Latin, not for its form alone, 
but largely for its spirit or content. This was realism 
two centuries in advance. He appreciated the beauty of 
literature, sympathized with the spirit of classical peo- 
ple and classical institutions, and transferred that 
beauty and spirit with all the fervor of his personality. 
His writings gave the Italian language the inheritances 
of classical times. 

a. A Latin epic, Africa, 
h. Italian Sonnets. • 

c. Letters. 

d. Lives of Ancient Men. 

e. His masterpiece, Decameron, was the inspiration 

and source of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. 

3. Boccaccio (1313-1375). Zealous in recovering 
classical texts, in multiplying classical manuscripts, and 
in founding libraries. 

4. Barzizza (1370 to 1431), noted scholar who worked 
with Petrarch and Boccaccio in recovering and repro- 
ducing manuscripts. 

5. In 1396, Manuel Chrysoloras or Emanuel Chryso- 

129 



MODERN EDUCATION— 1500 TO PRESENT 

lanras, a Greek teacher in Constantinople, was so 
strongly influenced by the enthusiasm of the humanists 
that lie settled in Florence and became famous as a 
teacher of Greek literature. In 1453, many other Greek 
scholars came to Italy and the University of Florence 
in particular became noted for intellectual activity in 
art, literature and music, Greek manuscripts were se- 
cured, Greek grammars were written, and Greek litera- 
ture was open to zealous students who became mission- 
aries in education for various parts of Europe. A Greek 
teacher was lecturing in the University of Paris in 1470, 
and the culture of Florence was taken to England by 
three scholars from Oxford — Grocyn, Linacre and John 
Colet. 

6. ^eas Sylvias and Guarino of Verona aided in 
giving the new education definite form. Each taught 
in his own home and thereby developed a plan of in- 
struction that supplemented the public teaching in the 
universities. 

7. Vittorino da Feltre (1378 to 1446) was associated 
with Barzizza, Sylvias arPd Guarino. Taught at Padua 
and Venice, but his fame rests upon the school he 
founded at Mantua (1428) in response to a call from 
the Prince of Mantua. This school was the first hu- 
manistic school distinct from university departments, 
and, for this reason, he was called "the first modern 
schoolmaster." The royal school later accepted otlier 
pupils. Pleasure and activity were aims in "The Pleas- 
ant House," the name given to an entire palace used as 
a school building. The seven liberal arts, with litera- 
ture predominating, formed the course of study; self- 
activity in play, esthetic appreciation and moral devel- 

130 



HUMANISM 

opmeiit was the keynote. Self-government of boys, ap- 
peal to natural interests, and use of constructive in- 
stincts were features far in advance of other systems. 
Harmonization of Greek and Roman merits under Chris- 
tian culture sought to prepare pupils for direct service 
in life. 

8. Schools of the Court were developed under the 
patronage of monarchs and the nobility. Wandering 
scholars were employed to teach, and the rival of states 
or cities was a stimulus to excellence in disseminating 
the new learning. Florence, Verona, Venice, Padua and 
Pavia became famous. 

9. Aldine Printing Press. The first original book 
printed in Italy was a Greek grammar, in 1476. In 
1472, an edition of Vergil was printed in Florence ; and, 
within thirty years, Europe had ten thousand books 
and pamphlets. 

10. Libraries. Enthusiasm in collecting manuscripts 
made the foundations for libraries. The collections of 
Niccolo Niccoli were given to Florence and Pope Nicho- 
las V secured five thousand manuscripts for the Vati- 
can library. 



Humanism in Holland and Germany 

236. Brethren of the Common Life, or Hierony- 
mians. 

1. Founded about 1380 at Deventer, Holland, by Ger- 
hard Groot. ]More than one hundred fifty schools in 
Flanders, France and Germany before middle of fif- 
teenth century. 

131 



MODERN EDUCATION— 1500 TO PRESENT 

2. Opposed to scholasticism, interested in mother- 
tongue and direct study of the Bible. Purpose was to 
give religious instruction to poor children, but later 
work included broad course of study. The members be- 
came enthusiastic students of grammar, rhetoric, litera- 
ture, Greek and Hebrew. Their teaching inspired their 
students with scholarly zeal. 

3. Their work and constitution formed a suggestive 
model for the Jesuits. 

4. Famous pupils. 

Wessel 

John Wessel (1420 to 1489). Studied in Cologne, 
Paris and Rome after leaving Deventer; scholar in 
Greek, Latin and Hebrew ; taught Agricola and Reuch- 
lin. 

Hegius 

Alexander Hegius (1420 to 1498), famous as a stu- 
dent of Greek and the Bible ; master of the gymnasium 
at Deventer for thirty years. 

Wimpfeling 

Jacob Wimpfeling (1450 to 1528) was lecturer and 
rector at Heidelberg. His fundamental principle was 
that ''the better education of the young is the founda- 
tion of all true reform, ecclesiastical, national, and do- 
mestic." Author A Guide to the German Youth, the 
first pedadogical treatise written in German. 



132 



ERASMUS 

Thomas a Kempis 
Author of Imitation of Christ. 

237. Rudolph Agricola. (1443-1485.) 

1. Studied in Italy; teacher at Heidelberg. 

2. Prepared northern countries for humanism. 

3. Made some progress in the study of Hebrew. 

238. John Reuchlin. (1455-1522.) 

1. Studied classics in Paris; teacher at Heidelberg. 

2. Introduced Greek into Germany. 

3. Champion of Hebrew. 

4. Textbooks. 

a. Hebrew Grammar and Lexicon. 

h. Latin Lexicon. 

c. Manuscript for Greek grammar. 

239. Desiderius Erasmus. (1467-1536.) 

1. Born at Rotterdam, attended school at Deventer, 

studied at universities of Paris and Turin. Trav- 
eled extensively and everywhere influenced stu- 
dents to take up the new work. Died in Basel, 
Switzerland. 

2. ''When I get money I will first buy Greek books 

and then clothes." 

3. Translator, writer, publisher. 

4. Translated Greek works into Latin. Printed first 

edition of New Testament in Greek. 

5. Educational writings. 

a. Praise of Folly: a Satire on Scholasticism, 
h. Colloquies: Instruction in Latin and Morals. 
133 



MODERN EDUCATION— 1500 TO PRESENT 

c. On the Order of Study. 

d. Of the First Liberal Education of Children. 
G. Pedagogy. 

a. The mother is the natural educator. 
&. Morals, manners, and choice use of language till 
seven. 

c. After seventh year, Latin and Greek studied to- 

gether. 

d. Utilize activity of child. See Froebel. 

e. Adaptation, interest, and thoroughness. 
/. Avoid brutal discipline. 

g. Objective method. 

h. Cultivate memory [a) by understanding sub- 
ject, (Z>) by logical thinking, (c) by compari- 
son. 

i. For girls, {a) Cultivate religious feeling; {h) 
protect from contamination; (c) keep from 
idleness. 

)■ 

The Protestant Beformers 

240. Martin Luther. (1483-1546.) 

1. Founder of Protestantism. 

2. Translated the Bible into German; aided German 

language. 

3. Founded German common school system. 

4. Educational aim was conformity to culture. 

a. Use ancient languages. 

h. Use history, music, mathematics and physical 
training. 

c. Practical value of training in rhetoric. 

d. Established public libraries. 

134 



MODERN EDUCATION— 1500 TO PRESENT 

5. Pedagogy. 

a. Parents responsible for education. Firmness 

and love in the home. 
5. Compulsory attendance under jurisdiction of 

state. 

c. Religion; natural methods; trades. 

d. Trained teachers, pedagogy for ministers. 

e. His conception of education embodied the ideas 

exemplified today in the Prussian school sys- 
tem, namely, a system that is national, uni- 
versal, compulsory. 
Observe that Luther used some subject-matter not in- 
cluded in the humanities. 

241. Melanchthon. (1497-1560.) Saxony School 
Plan. 

1. Called the preceptor of Germany. Luther's friend. 

Made Protestantism acceptable to men of letters. 

2. A teacher. Lecturer on Old and New Testament ;, 

ethics, logic, physics, and classical authors. 

3. A school organizer. The Saxony School Plan. 

a. Not too many studies; Latin the only language. 

h. Not too many books. 

c. Three grades for primary schools. 

4. Author of text-books on Greek and Latin grammar, 

logic, rhetoric, ethics and Hebrew, 
f). ''Through his formulation of the Visitation Articles 
of Saxony in 1528 he became the founder of the 
modern public school system." (Monroe, p. 416). 

242. Johann Sturm (1507-1589). Classical High 
School Course. 

1. Organized Strasburg Gymnasium and remained its 
master for forty-seven years. 
( 136^ 



STURM 

2. The originator of the classical high school system. 

3. Latin and Greek; no German, history, mathematics 

or science. 

4. Method, double translation. Translate Latin and 

Greek into German and later translate back into 
Latin and Greek. 

5. The first extended well-articulated course of study. 

6. Child at home till six; 6-16, Latin, six years of Greek, 

some rhetoric, logic, music and religion; 16-21, 
college work. All the periods covered by organi- 
zation into ten classes. Language the basis of 
the system ; pure humanism. 
Sturm's school was a type of humanistic schools 
called gymnasien in the early periods but called gym- 
nasium in latter part of the sixteenth century. The gym- 
nasien developed from the higher burgher schools and 
became the distinctive classical schools that prepared 
for university courses. Classical Latin, classical Greek, 
literature, mathematics and^ in many cases, Hebrew 
were the principal subjects. Later development held 
the gymnasium as a classical school distinct from the 
real school which stood for science and modern lan- 
guages. The gymnasien were under control of munici- 
pal governments. 

243. Trotzendorf. (1490 to 1556.) Self-government. 

1. A teacher at Goldberg thirty-five years. 

2. Latin and Greek like Sturm's course; pupils recited 

in Latin. 

3. Conversation, concrete methods, illustrations. 

4. Student self-government. 

137 



MODERN EDUCATION— 1500 TO PRESENT 

244. Neander. (1525-1595.) Geography, History, 
Science. 

1. Pupil of Melanchthon. 

2. Teacher at Ilfel'd forty-five years. 

3. Knew Latin, Greek, chemistry and medicine. 

4. Favored geography, history, natural science. 

5. Author of Latin and Greek text-books. 
Furstenschulen, or schools for princes, were organized 

in the sixteenth century for the education of boys of 
the nobility. Controlled by courts. 

Humanism in England 

Grocyn, Linacre, John Colet, Thomas More, Roger 
Ascham, Erasmus. 

Humanism was introduced into England by three 
men who were imbued by the new spirit as a result of 
study in Florence, Italy. Those men were William 
Grocyn and Thomas Linacre from Oxford University 
and John Colet from Cambridge University. They wel- 
comed Erasmus to Oxford in 1498 and aided him in his 
work at Cambridge from 1510 to 1513. 

John Colet (1466 to 1519) 

Lectured at Oxford on St. Paul's Epistles; founded 
St. Paul's School in 1519 and systematized humanistic 
studies for secondary schools. 

Sir Thomas More (1478 to 1535) 

1. Son of a lawyer in London. 

2. Attended St. Anthony's School where Colet and 

Latimer were pupils. 

138 



HUMANISM IN ENGLAND 

3. Trained by Cardinal Morton, Archbishop of Canter- 

bury. 

4. At Oxford. Studied Greek under Linacre and be- 

came acquainted with Grocyn, two English hu- 
manists who studied in Florence. Familiar with 
Latin, French, history, mathematics and music. 

5. Met Erasmus in England in 1497 and received the 

first inspiration from him. Strongly influenced 
by many humanists whom he became acquainted 
with in Northern Europe. 

6. "Wrote Utopia in Latin and it was published in Lou- 

vain in 1516. Utopia describes an ideal country 
free from abuses of the Old AYorld. The educa- 
tional views favor the liberal arts including 
Greek, the use of the vernacular, physical exer- 
cise including agriculture and trades^, riding and 
military exercises, plenty of sleep, moderation in 
eating and drinking. 

7. More's influence in favor of the new learning was 

strong in England. 

8. Beheaded by Henry VIII in 1535. 

Roger Ascham (1515 to 1568) 

1. Teacher of Greek in Cambridge. 

2. Tutor of Queen Elizabeth. 

3. Method. Double translation : Latin to English^ then 

English to Latin. 

4. Wrote the ScJioIenmster, the first treatise on educa- 

tion in Eno^lish. 



139 



MODERN EDUCATION— 1500 TO PRESENT 

FiCblic Schools of England 

The public schools of England became numerous on 
account of the humanistic revival. Winchester (1387) 
and Eton (1440) existed before the Renaissance, but the 
model was St. Paul's School, London, founded by Colet 
in 1512. The first master of that school, William Lilly, 
is still cited as authority on Latin grammar. The other 
public schools were developed out of nearly three hun- 
dred monastic or church schools which were suppressed 
by Henry VII (1509 to 1547). Those schools were re- 
constructed according to humanistic ideals. Nine of 
the public schools are recognized as great : Winchester, 
Eton, St. Paul's, Westminster, Harrow, Charter-House, 
Rugby, Shrewsbury and Merchant Taylors'. 

The public schools were supported by private contri- 
bution or royal endowment, independent of church and 
state. Pupils were required to pay tuition. 

Humanism in America 

The colonial grammar schools followed the type of 
English public schools, but support was given by the 
colonies, not by private endowment. See later chapter 
for development of schools in United States. 



140 



Chapter XXI ^ 

THE JESUITS— CATHOLIC COUNTER- 
REFORMERS 

The Protestant Reformation under the leadership of 
Martin Luther had definite educational significance as 
shown in connection with humanism in Germany (sec- 
tion 240). Now we shall consider the educational work 
of the Jesuits, a teaching congregation organized to de- 
fend the Catholic Church in religion^ education, and all 
other interests of mankind. The movement is known as 
the Catholic Counter-Reformation because the avowed 
purpose was to oppose the Protestant Reformation. 

The Jesuits 

245. Founder. 

Ignatius Loyola, born in 1491 at the castle of Loyola 
in Spain. Entered the army, wounded at Pampeluna 
(1522) ; during convalescence he read the Lives of Jesus 
and the Saints and decided to become a soldier of the 
cross; a pilgrim to Holy Land (1524) ; at study (1524 
to 1535) ; received papal charter for society (1540) ; 
drew up Constitution of Order (1550) ; died 1556. 

246. Designation. 

A teaching congregation organized to combat Protest- 
a,ntism. Won back one third of Protestant Europe. 

142 



MODERN EDUCATION— 1500 TO PRESENT 

247. Aims. 

1. To be the best teachers. 

2. To be the best preachers. 

3. To be the best confessors. 

4. Motto, ''To the greater glory of God." 

5. Their course of study was called Ratio Studiorum, 

or System of Studies. Planned by a committee 
under Claudius Aquaviva and adopted in 1599. 
Intended for secondary schools and collegiate 
courses, not for primary classes. 
a. Studia Inferiora, or lower grade, corresponded 
to the gymnasien. Arithmetic, history, natu- 
ral science, religion. 
h. Studia Superiora, or college course. Ancient 
classics, philosophy, theology. 

248. Criticism. 

1. Most efficient system for three centuries. 

2. Professionally trained teachers; adaptation to indi- 

vidual powers of pupils; excellent discipline. 

3. Authors, learned men, zealous missionaries. 

4. Primary education neglected. 

5. Use of emulation through rivalry is adversely criti- 

cized. 

6. Method of teaching Latin is excellent in developing 

habits of study. 
a. Prelection, or going over advanced lesson with 

class. 
h. Repetition, the actual recitation in class after 

prelection and study, 
c. Disputation, or debate as a means of review 
and public expression. 
144 



THE JESUITS 

7. Thoroughness. Daily, weekly, monthly and yearly 
reviews. 

249. Organization. 

The Society of Jesus is itself an example of the value 
of organization. Under no other plan could such effec- 
tive results have been attained. 

The sixteenth century is strong in the tendency to- 
ward organization: Saxony School Plan; High School 
Classical Course; Ratio Studiorum; Neander's Student 
Self -Government. Sturm organized one school; the 
Jesuits organized all high schools — a system. 



145 



Chapter XXII 
EEALISM; 16TH CENTURY EDUCATORS 

250. Meaning. 

Realism in education is the name given to that 
tendency in which natural phenomena and the practical 
realities of life became the subject-matter for study in 
place of Latin and Greek. It was a utilitarian tendency. 
In its later development some of the realistic studies 
were natural science, geography, history, art, French 
and German. 

251. Humanistic realism. 

Pure humanism exalted Latin and Greek for their dis- 
ciplinary value, but humanistic realism took a broader 
view by using those two languages as a means of learn- 
ing how to live better through knowing the lives of the 
ancients. Linguistic content was made more valuable 
than form. Thus education became an appreciative 
study of classic literature. Representatives, Rabelais 
and Milton. 

252. Social realism. 

This view of education rejected humanistic training 
as a worthy preparation for real life, and insisted upon 
direct, practical education through experience. Repre- 
sentative, Montaigne. 

146 



RABELAIS 

253. Sense realism. 

Knowledge comes through the senses. This conception 
of education was a development from the other forms 
of realism. Best represented in the seventeenth cen- 
tury, it embodied the leading principles of modern edu- 
cation. Mulcaster, Bacon, Comenius, Ratke. 

Rabelais (1183 to 1553), French Realist and Satirist 

254. Life. 

An expelled monk, a pastor, a physician, a universal 
scholar. Ridiculed all these in his satire. 

255. Writings. 

A series of chronicles, the first called Gargantua, the 
second called Pantagruel. 

256. Nature of his writings. 

Destructive rather than constructive. He ridiculed 
existing conditions but did not go ahead and improve 
them. Garfjantua was a satire on previous systems of 
education, especially on scholastic education. The giant 
Gargantua represents the old education, while the page 
Eudemon typifies the new realistic education for the 
world. In conversation, the intelligence, courtesy and 
self-control of the page causes Gargantua to ''cry like 
a cow and hide his face with his cap." 

257. His course of study. 

1. Practical substance of the seven liberal arts. 

2. Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldaic, Arabic. 

3. ^lathematics, astronomy rather than astrology, his- 

tory, civil law, philosophy. 
147 



EEALISM; 16TII CENTURY EDUCATORS 

4. Exact study of nature through observation and other 

objective mctJiods: seas, mountains, fishes, herbs, 
minerals, etc. ; acquaintance with the arts and 
trades by visiting workshops. 

5. ^'In brief let me see thee an abyss and bottomless 

pit of knowledge." 

258. Pedagogy. 

1. Health. Games and sports for physical development. 

2. Interest. Studies made pleasant ; interest rather 

than compulsion. 

3. Thing rather than words. The realities of life rather 

than formal literary education. 

4. Mild discipline. 

5. Private tutor better than public teachers. 

259. Influence. 

Not much concrete influence upon schools but a great 
stimulus to educational writers like Montaigne^ Locke 
and Rousseau. 

Montaigne (ir)38 to 1529), French Essayist 

260. Series. 

It is frequently said that Rabelais, Montaigne^ Locke 
and Rousseau form a series. Note the development of 
similar lines of thought. What evidence of realism in 
INIontaigne ? 

261. Writings. 

1. Essays on Pedantry, showing the aim of education. 

2. Instruction of Children, showing method in educa- 

tion. 

148 



MONTAIGNE 

262. His view. 

He condemned the schools of his time and of prior 
ages for the use of force in intellectual, moral, and 
physical education. To him, education meant a frank 
preparation for a practical, serviceable, successful and 
happy career of a man of the world. 

263. Social realist. 

This aim of education puts Montaigne into a class by 
himself as a social realist. He censures the show of 
learning exemplified by the humanists. He stands for a 
knowledge of things as ideas and so he is not a humanis- 
tic realist; he advocated training the senses in contrast 
to the formal humanistic training but not in the extreme 
concrete manner advocated by the sense realists ; he was 
not a naturalist like Rousseau, because contact with the 
world through experience was emphasized by Mon- 
taigne. 

264. Pedagogy. 

1. Private tutor required. 

2. Health. Physical exercise needed. No coddling or 

spoiling by foolish parents; tlie boy must be 
hardened to endurance. 

3. Environment. Make schools cheerful. 

4. Interest. Desire for study is most important. 

5. Discipline. Use a kind of severity but not punish- 

ment and compulsion. 

265. Studies. 

1. Courtesy : elegant manners. 

2. History gives judgment and character. 

149 



EEALISM; 16TH CENTURY EDUCATORS 

3. Nature study : a means of judging true values. 

4. Logic, physics, geometry, etc., as pupil desires. 

5. French first; then other languages. 

266. Methods. 

1. Experience. Learn more from experience than from 

books. 

2. Travel. To learn to know men. 

3. Latin. Learn by conversation, not by grammars. 

4. Learning by heart is not learning at all. Practice 

lessons rather than recite them; apply what is 
learned; prove every opinion, submit to no au- 
thority. Independence of thought is the most im- 
portant object of education. 

267. Naturalism. 

The eighteenth century is associated with naturalism 
because the nature of the child was considered and 
physical nature of environment was used in the sub- 
jects studied and in the methods of teaching. Mon- 
taigne and Rabelais are sometimes classed as naturalists 
because they advocated adaptation of matter and 
methods to the nature of the learner's mind. 

268. Theory. 

Note the progress in the theory of education rather 
than in the practice. 

Richard Mulcaster (1532 to 1611), England 

269. Teacher* 

Headmaster of Merchant Taylors ' School 25 years and 
of St. Paul's School 12 years. Knowledge of Latin, 
Greek, Hebrew, music and drama. 

150 



KAMUS 

270. Books. 

The Positions. Description of principles of an effi- 
cient school system. 

1. Individuality of child must be respected. 

2. All classes must attend elementary school and learn 

reading, writing, drawing, music and physical 
training. 

3. Vernacular first. Teach English well and then 

Latin. 

4. Schools must have air, light and playgrounds. 

5. Public education is far better than private tutoring. 

6. Professional training of teachers. Establish training 

colleges at the universities to rank with schools 
for clergymen, physicians and lawyers. In this 
and some other points he was three centuries 
ahead of his time. 
The Elementarie. Strong plea for the mastery of 
English. Discussion of origin of language, orthography, 
language reformers ; rules for ortliography and com- 
position. 

271. Aim of education. 

''The end of education and training is to help nature 
to her perfection." 

Ramus (1515 to 1572), France 

272. Life. 

1. Petrus or Pierre de la Ramee born at Cuth, edu- 
cated at University of Paris. Professor in College of 
France and later principal of College of Presles. 

151 



REALISM; 16TIT CENTURY EDUCATORS 

273. French language. 

An ardent advocate for development of French lan- 
guage at a time when Latin was the language of schol- 
ars. 

274. A reformer. 

1. Tried to reform organization of the University by 
working for better teachers, better curriculum and bet- 
ter methods of teaching. 

2. Tried to free the liberal arts from abstractness 
and needless difficulties. His principles for reform 
were (a) nature, (5) system, (c) practice. Nature 
should be the guide for clearness of subject-matter. 
Grammar, for instance, should be considered from 
actual usage of both ancient and modern writers and 
modern speech. Logic should be based upon the ob- 
servation of the human mind, and natural sciences 
should be based upon the investigation of physical na- 
ture. System related to the arrangement of subject- 
matter, following most of the logic of Aristotle as his 
guide. 

275. Author. 

Undertook a revision of all the liberal arts. His publi- 
cations include sixty- two works covering Latin, Greek 
and French, grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, mathematics, 
all natural sciences, ethics and theology. 

276. Influence. 

He directed attention to the value of clearness in or- 
ganization and practice in application. ''Few precepts 
and much use." 

152 



VIVES 

Vives (1492 to 1540), Spain 

278. Life. 

1. Juan Luis Vives was born in Spain. Educated 
at University of Paris. Friend of Erasmus and Sir 
Thomas ]\Iore. 

2. Located at Bruges in Belgium. Lecturer in Paris, 
Louvain and Oxford Universities. 

3. In 1523 he wrote a plan of studies for the daugh- 
ter of Queen Catharine of England and he performed 
a similar service for the son of Mountjoy, the pupil and 
patron of Erasmus. 

4. Considered one of the three noted scholars of the 
time. Erasmus and Budaeus were the other two. Vives 
was given the title, ' ' The Second Quintilian. ' ' 

5. He wrote Institution of a Christian Woman. The 
book applies the principles of the Eenaissance and gives 
woman full rights of education. It retains the religious 
basis, rejects the use of medieval romances, favors man- 
ual training, introduces humanistic Latin, and exalts 
the ideal of domestic education. The Introduction to 
Wisdom gives precepts or maxims to guide the moral 
and intellectual life of the students. De Disciplinis, 
the greatest educational work of Vives, has seven 
books on the causes of corruption of learning dur- 
ing the ^liddle Ages and five books showing con- 
structively how the work of education should be 
carried on. It is considered the greatest educational 
work of the Renaissance. Another book, De Anima, 
produced in 1539, is psychology, and its merit has 
given Vives the title of the "Father of Modern 
Psychology." 

153 



EEALISM; 16TH CENTURY EDUCATORS 

279. Ideals of teacher. 

1. High scholarship to teach and to inspire. 

2. Aptness in imparting knowledge. 

3. Incorruptible morals as an example. 

4. Paternal sympathy for pupils. 

280. Methods of teaching. 

1. Begin with pupil's experience: known to related un- 

known. 

2. Inductive method in grammar. As strong an advo- 

cate as Francis Bacon. 

3. Nature study through observation. (Compare Ba- 

con.) 

4. Use native language in explaining Latin. 

5. Logical order distinguished from order adapted to 

child's mind. 

Zwingli (1484 to 1532). Ulrich 

Zwingli was a Swiss religious reformer. He favored 
elementary schools for all and general education in 
higher branches. He wrote The Manner of Instructing 
and Bringwg Up Boys in a Christian Way. 

John Calvin (1509 to 1564) 

A reformer in religion. Organized a college at 
Geneva, Switzerland, and it became a type for Protes- 
tant schools in France and Germany. 

John Knox (1505 to 1572) 

Leader of Protestantism in Scotland, introduced 
parish schools into Scotland. 

154 



REALISM; 16TH CENTURY EDUCATORS 

Sitrmmary of Progress for Sixteenth Century 

1. Humanism revived classic liter ature^, put it into form 

for use, and stimulated intellectual activity. 

2. The Reformation stimulated the German language, 

promoted primary education^ laid foundation of 
German common school system, and helped the 
idea of universal education. 

3. Sturm organized the Classical High. School course 

and used double translation in the mastery of 
languages. That was a new method in education. 
Latin and Greek into German, then German into 
Latin and Greek. 

4. The Jesuits organized a High School system, made a 

course of study, and gave their teachers peda- 
gogical training. 

5. Realism demanded knowledge of practical living. 

6. Rabelais directed attention to realism. 

7. Montaigne stood for practical education, pleasant 

surroundings, conversational method in lan- 
guages, mild discipline. 

8. Ramus made learning practical and pleasant. 



155 



Chapter XXIII 
THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 

I. The Innovators of the 17th Century 

281. Meaning. 

An innovator is one who introdnces a change, gen- 
erally something new. These innovators developed the 
ideas of the sixteenth century realists. These are sense 
realists. 

282. Reaction. 

This century is called a period of reaction. It was a 
reaction against the exclusive use of Latin and Greek ; a 
reaction in favor of tilings instead of words. Recall the 
tendency to give more attention to the substance of 
studies than to form, but observe the necessity of teach- 
ing both things and the names of things together. Re- 
formers often make the mistake of rejecting much that 
is good as their zeal carries them along in the new work. 

283. Outgrowth or development. 

1. New literatures: Italian, French, German. 

2. Geographical discoveries: America, Magellan's cir- 

cumnavigation. 

3. Scientific discoveries of Roger Bacon, the Franciscan 

monk, in the thirteenth century. Attention di- 
156 



PEDAGOGY OF INNOVATORS 

rected to laboratory work in chemistry and 
physics. 

4. AVritings of Rabelais and Montaigne. 

5. Work of Ramus and Mulcaster. 

6. Inventions and discoveries in 17th century. 

a. Galileo's use of the telescope, 1609. 

h. Kepler's laws of planetary movements. 

c. Harvey discovered circulation of the blood, 1616. 

d. Guericke invented air-pump, 

e. Newton's laws of gravitation. 

284. Compulsory education. 

In 1619 the Duke of AVeimar made the first efficient 
compulsory education law for all classes. IMust be in 
school 6 yr.-12 yr. 

285. The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). 

This depopulated Germany and set her back two hun- 
dred years in character, intelligence, and morality. 

286. The new efforts. 

The conditions under 283-286 explain the need of new 
efforts. The attention of mankind was directed to the 
real things of life. 

287. Pedagogy of innovators. 

1. Things before words : concrete to abstract. 

2. Sense instruction : visualization. 

3. Begin with mother tongue: French, German, Eng- 

lish, etc., before Latin and Greek. 

4. Latin and Greek, part of advanced education. 

5. Physical training. 

6. According to nature. This principle is one of the 

broadest in education. Its meaning and applica- 
157 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 

tion include the observed laws of nature in en- 
vironment and tlie nature of children. To 
Comenius and other innovators, proceeding ac- 
cording to nature meant to conduct the educa- 
tional process as you plant seed. Begin in the 
spring, prepare the soil, sow the seed, cultivate 
the growing crop and enjoy the harvest. Analogy 
gives a similar process in training the mind. Re- 
call the formal steps of instruction advocated by 
Herbart — preparation, presentation, comparison, 
generalization, application or drill. 

Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel had another meaning 
for the expression ''We must proceed according to nat- 
ure," and their notion is the present educational view. 
It means that we must proceed according to the nature 
of the child. We can't teach the child percentage or pro- 
portion before his mind is ready to grasp them. The 
missionary can't convert a heathen by preaching ab- 
stract sermons on truth, service, loyalty, etc. He must 
approach the abstract by personal, concrete examples of 
these virtues — truth, service, loyalty, etc. So the child, 
to know number in the abstract, must first count and 
measure things. 

Eatke (1571 to 1635). Germany 
Known as Wolfgang Ratich or Ratichius also. 

288. Organizer. 

Formulated the ideas of the new conception of edu- 
cation. Classed as realist and innovator. 

158 



RATKE 

289. Enthusiast. 

An erratic wanderer seeking to sell his natural method 
for the quick mastery of languages. He agreed to teach 
au}^ language in six months by the method of conver- 
sation and double translation. The method of con- 
versation^ or the direct method, is the leading one to- 
day. 

Studied at Hamburg and Rostock, Germany ; traveled 
in Holland, Belgium and other countries, wrote Address 
to Princes and Methodus Nova. 

290. His pedagogy. 

1. Everything according to nature. 

2. One thing at a time. 

3. Frequent repetition. 

4. Nothing learned by heart ; study thoughtfully. 

5. Uniformity : everything taught in the same way. 

6. Knowledge of the thing before the name of the 

thing. See Pestalozzi. 

7. Everything by experiment and analysis. See Ba- 

con's inductive method. 

8. Corporal punishment only for obstinacy and evil 

ways, not for failure of learning. 

9. Special teacher for each school. 

10. Special schools for different languages. 

11. Girls instructed by proper and skilful women. 

12. Logic and rhetoric considered real studies; science 

not taught. 

291. Influence. 

Stimulated others by showing what could be done. 

159 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 

Francis Bacon (1561 to 1626). England 

292. Method. 

Developed and applied the inductive method in in- 
struction and in investigation. Educational work un- 
dertaken after failure in public life. With equipment 
of education at Cambridge, he undertook to organize 
all knowledge. 

293. Writings. 

1. Essays. 

2. The Advancement of Learning. 

3. Novum Organum. In this appears his Inductive 

Method, which requires the student to experi- 
ment, investigate, verify. 

4. Instauratio Magna, an encyclopedia of knowledge. 

294. Title. 

Sometimes called the Father of Modern Science, a title 
which belongs to Aristotle. Bacon did show how to use 
the inductive method in elementary science and other 
subjects in which pupils can observe experiments and 
formulate rules, definitions or laws; but Aristotle wrote 
on induction two thousand years before Bacon's time. 
Aristotle concluded that induction is uncertain because 
we cannot be sure that subsequent experiments will pro- 
duce results the same as the observed results. In other 
words, we cannot judge the future by the past and the 
present. Aristotle favored deductive method because 
the conclusion must be true if the two premises of the 
syllogism are valid. Bacon said the deductive method 
may train formal reasoning, but it cannot lead to new 
knowledge. 

160 



COMENIUS 

Induction and deduction may be illustrated in teach- 
ing definition of noun. Under the inductive method, 
the teacher directs attention to the several name words 
in five or more sentences and associates the word noun 
with each name word. After a few such observations, 
pupils make the definition of noun. Under the deduc- 
tive method, the pupils learn the definition of noun first 
and then proceed to pick out the nouns in several 
sentences. Both methods should be combined in a com- 
plete lesson as shown in section 208, page 92, of 
McEvoy 's Methods in Education. 

295. Influence. 

His ideas aided Comenius, Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi 
and others. 

John Aynos Comenius (1592 to 1670) 

296. Moravian. 

Born at Moravia, Bohemia; a member of Moravian 
Brethren, or Ancient Unitas Fratrum, an organization 
characterized by missionary zeal and effectiveness in 
education and religion. 

297. Observer. 

Minister and bishop in the Moravian church; teacher, 
exile in Poland, student of all conditions affecting life. 
Disgusted with schools and methods of his time, he de- 
termined to unify agencies producing human welfare. 
No class distinctions recognized by him. 

298. Author of text-books. 

a. Orhis Pictus, an illustrated text-book. 
161 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 

h. Gate of Tongues Unlocked: eight thousand Latin 
words associated with things. A method of 
teaching. 

c. Great Didactic. Principles of teaching. 

299. Organizer of an educational system. 

The school system in four periods of six years each. 

1. From 1 to 6. Infancy, mother school. Religion, 

morals, sense training, language. Compare kin- 
dergarten. 

2. From 7 to 12. Boyhood, national school. Mother 

tongue, catechism, singing, arithmetic, geography. 
Compare elementary school. 

3. From 13 to 18. Adolescence, gymnasium or Latin 

school. Substance of seven liberal arts modified 
to meet needs of time. 

4. From 19 to 24. Youth, university. Advanced 

courses according to development of science at 
that time, language, history, etc. 

300. Originator of principles and methods of teach- 
ing. 

See Great Didactic. 

1. According to nature. 

2. Present everything through the senses. 

8. Simple to complex, near to remote, easy to difficult, 
from known to related unknown, to teach from 
tilings and not about things. 

4. Make learning pleasant by selection of material, by 

adaptation, by illustration. 

5. Eliminate all that is useless. Learn to do by doing. 

6. One language at a time and each language learned 

by conversation and application to things. 
162 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 

7. Importance of example by parents, nurses, teachers 
and associates. 

301. Method. 

The method according to nature was analogous to the 
processes in physical nature. As there is an appropriate 
time for preparing the soil, planting the seed, cultivat- 
ing and harvesting, so there are likewise appropriate 
times and methods in education of children. 

302. Influence. 

He put existing theories into definite and practical 
form. He organized a school system, outlined methods 
and principles, and prepared text-books for pupils and 
teachers. A valuable preparation for all later efforts in 
education. 

John Milton (1608-1674). England 

303. Book. 

Published Tractate on Education, 1644. 

1. Objected to formal grammar and formal composi- 

tion. 

2. Objected to formal language; content of language 

more important than form. 

3. Favored practical efficiency. 

4. Favored language as a means of expression, physical 

training, literature as source of life duties, and 
pleasant effort leading to development of pupils. 

304. Definition of education. 

"I call, therefore, a complete and generous education 
that which fits a man to perform justly, skilfully, and 

164 



FENELON 

magnanimously all the offices both private and public 
of peace ancT war/' 

305. Aim. 

Tlie aim of learning is to repair the ruins of our first 
parents by regaining to know God aright. 

306. Scheme. 

Outlined a scheme of education so broad that it is 
impossible to satisfy it. In content it was the broad 
humanistic conception; in the method and purpose of 
the use of that content, it was realistic. 

307. Literature. 

Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained. 

Fenelon (1651-1715). France 
Education of Women 

308. Life. 

1. A Catholic priest. 

2. Archbishop of Cambray. 

3. Teacher in convent of New Catholics; and in 1669 

tutor of the young dukes of Burgundy, Anjou, 
and Berry, grandsons of Louis XIV. 

309. Book. 

While teaching in the convent of New Catholics, a 
school for young women reclaimed from Protestantism, 
he wrote his famous book, Education of Girls. 

310. Views on female education. 

1. Women intellectually weaker than men; therefore 
strengthen them by education. 
165 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 

2. Women control morality of world,. 

3. Education overcomes vices due to idleness. 

4. Use literature, history, religion. 

5. Utilize curiosity of children. 

311. Indirect instruction. 

Fenelon showed how to use the story in education. As 
shown in the following section, he prepared books for 
his pupils, the young dukes. He put history into the 
form of story or fable to make the matter interesting, 
and the study of such pleasing matter produced two 
results^ one direct and the other indirect. The direct 
instruction was the content or subject-matter of his- 
tory; the indirect instruction was the moral notions 
formed. 

As a method or device, indirect instruction com- 
bined instruction, interest, pleasurable effort and va- 
riety. Note how much pupils acquire by reading, hear- 
ing, observing and imitating, aside from the direct 
points in the recitation. All outside of the direct aim 
of the lesson may be indirect instruction. 

312. Books for indirect instruction. 

Theory of indirect teaching was applied in Fenelon 's 
text-books. 

1. Telemachus, facts from Homer. 

2. Dialogues of the Dead, history taught by having his- 

torical characters appear and converse. 

3. Fahles moral and mental lessons for his pupils. 

313. Summary. 

1. Greatest Catholic educator of 17th century. 

2. Indirect instruction : story methods in teaching. 

166 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 

3. Discipline, mild; develop better tendencies. 

4. Make use of curiosity. See Bacon, Comenius, Pes- 

talozzi for agreement. 

5. Used principles of Innovators. 

6. Strong supporter of public education under control 

of the state. 

II. The Teaching Congregations 

The Oratorians. France. A Teaching Order 

314. Foundation. 

In 1611, in imitation of Congregation of the Oratory 
founded in 1575 by St. Philip Neri in Italy. A religious 
community of priests, not monks, organized to teach 
candidates for priesthood. Extended teaching to in- 
clude secondary education. Chief colleges at Dieppe, 
Mans and Juilly. 

315. Principles. 

1. Obedience to their organization. 

2. Absence of militant and political spirit of Jesuits. 

3. Liberal, Christian education to produce intellectual 

freedom. 

4. Use literature, history, science. 

316. Contributions to education. 

1. The use of the vernacular (mother tongue — French, 

German, etc. ) and the exclusion of Latin until the 
fourth term. 

2. Geography and history correlated. History made 

important; French history before classical his- 
tory. 

168 



PORT ROYALISTS 

3. Improved methods in Latin and Greek. Vernacu- 

lar used in each ; oral expression more important 
than written themes. 

4. Physics, chemistry and philosophy taught. 

5. Discipline was gentle. Monitorial assistance em- 

ployed. The same professor took a class through 
from the first term to philosophy. 

317. Representatives. 

1. Lamy and Thomassin, teachers and philosophers. 

Lamy's Conversations on the Sciences. 
a. Begin study with logic. 

h. Combine logic and mathematics. See Ramus, 
c. Interlinear translations. 

2. Mascaron and Massillon, preachers. 

3. iMalebranche, philosopher. 

Port liOijalists (1637 to 1661). France. A Teaching 

Order 

318. Reaction. 

Against the theology and the methods of the Jesuits. 
The order known as Jansenists also. 

319. Members. 

The community was a brotherliood of distinguished 
men — clergymen and laymen — who gave themselves up 
to a kind of monastic life under the guidance of St. 
Cyran. Petites Ecoles, or Little Schools, founded by 
St. Cyran. 

320. Conception of education. 

Child's nature wholly evil; education must eradicate 
this and replace it with religious spirit. 

169 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 

321. Aims and methods. 

1. Five or six pupils to each teacher; always with 

teacher; individual influence. 

2. Begin with French, and through French learn Latin. 

3. Moral training through literature instead of lan- 

guage. 

4. Content vs. form: teach only what children can un- 

derstand. , 

5. The Jesuits used emulation to replace compulsion 

and fear of physical violence ; the Port Royalists 
rejected all rivalry and emulation, and depended 
upon love of pupil through affection and religious 
zeal of teacher. Result, pupils often indifferent. 

6. Alphabet method replaced by phonic method in 

spelling. 

7. Objective methods formulated and applied. 

322. Text-Books. 

1. Port Eoyal Logic. Practical treatise. 

2. Objective teaching followed as a principle. 

3. Useful text-books. 

323. Teachers. 

Nicole, Lancelot, Rollin. 

324. Famous pupils. 

La Fontaine, Pascal. v 

The Christian Brothers (1682). France. A Teaching 

Order 

325. Founder. 

St. John Baptist de la Salle (1651 to 1719), a priest. 
The members of the Institute of the Brothers of the 

170 



THE CTTRTSTIAN BROTHERS 

Christian Schools are not priests, nor can they become 
priests. 

326. Aim. 

The Brothers of the Christian Schools sought to do 
for elementary education and the working people what 
the Jesuits had done for secondary education and the 
higher class of people. In more specific terms, their 
object is the education of youth, the cultivation of let- 
ters, and the diffusion of knowledge. Their system in- 
cludes colleges, technical and industrial schools, com- 
mercial colleges, elementary schools, grammar schools, 
high schools, asylums and protectorates. 

327. La Salle's book. 

The Conduct of Schools. Its scope includes all that is 
usually deemed essential in both theory and practice in 
school administration. It is a notable production on 
account of comprehensiveness of treatment, clearness 
and precision in style, practical adaptation to existing 
needs of pupils, teachers and communities. Following 
are some of the topics treated : 
1. Basic principles. 

a. Man is a rational being, composed of body and 

soul. 
h. Children are as weak from the viewpoint of in- 
tellection and volition as they are in their 
physical faculties. 

c. To correct a defect or vice, man should make 

frequent acts of virtue opposed thereto. 

d. The senses, having a large share in the opera- 

tions of the intellect, should be carefully cul- 
171 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 

tivated. Hence the necessity of developing 
the intellect, of rectifying the judgment, of 
educating the will, and of forming the heart 
to virtue. 

2. Specific directions for physical, intellectual and 

moral education. 

3. Qualifications of teachers: physical, intellectual and 

moral. The virtues of a good teacher are grav- 
ity, silence, discretion, prudence, wisdom, pa- 
tience, reserve, gentleness, zeal, vigilance, piety 
and generosity. 

4. Laws of education, 

328. Contributions. 

1. Organization and management of elementary schools. 

2. Simultaneous teaching, i. e., class teaching by which 

all the pupils receive the same lesson at the same 
time from the same teacher. 

3. The grade school, the forerunner of the present 

graded schools. 

4. First normal school for secular teachers, Rheims, 

1685. 

5. The Christian Academy or Sunday school, in which 

architecture, drawing and geometry were taught 
(Paris, 1698). 

6. Technical schools with courses such as the schools of 

technology have to-day. 

7. The Reform School (Saint-Yon, Rouen, 1705). 

Compare protectories for boys or girls. 

8. Lasting improvement of primary methods, primary 

schools, and the public school system. 



172 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 

John Locke (1632-1701). Efigland 

329. Life. 

1. From Puritan stock. 

2. Six years in Westminster and then Oxford. Studied 

medicine, but was not graduated as physician. 

3. Associated with royal families, held public office. 

Some experience as tutor and companion of boys. 

4. Lived in Holland six years, traveled in other coun- 

tries. 

5. Influenced by Montaigne; Rousseau influenced by 

Locke. 

330. Process. 

The process of learning, not the thing learned, is im- 
portant. At first the mind is a blank, and its powers 
must be developed from the outside through the forma- 
tion of habits. 

This exaltation of process brings up the doctrine of 
formal discipline in education. This doctrine "asserts 
that mental power developed in one subject is usable in 
any other." (Home, Principles^ p. ^Q.) 

This theory brings up two phases of daily teaching, 
form and content of matter. The historic theory held 
that it does not matter what is studied, provided it is 
studied rightly. This is the doctrine of power in educa- 
tion ; and, as Home says, power applicable to any task 
that is assigned to us. Modern opinion exalts content, 
since interest is attached to matter related to life. The 
object of interest is present, not in the distant future. 

Criticism of formal discipline and its advocates is 
made by stating the present or modified view in this 

174 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 

wa3^: ''Mental power developed in one subject is ap- 
plicable to any other in direct proportion to their simi- 
larity. This principle means the greater the similarity 
between two subjects the greater the applicability of 
mental power developed in one to the other; the less 
similarity, the less applicability." {Principles, p. 71.) 

331. Kinds. 

Education is physical, moral and intellectual; and so 
the corresponding aims are vigor of body, virtue and 
knowledge. 

332. Writings. 

1. Essay Concerning Hnman Understanding. 

2. Thoughts on Education. 

The Essay Concerning Human Understanding is 
among the most important books in the development 
of modern tliought. It is an exposition of empiricism, 
or the value of personal experience in producing valid 
knowledge. It made inquiry ''into the originals, cer- 
tainty and extent of human knowledge ; how far the 
understanding can extend its view, how far it has facul- 
ties to extend its certainty, and in what cases it can only 
judge and guess." The result of this inquiry was the 
statement that knowledge is limited to the ideas gained 
through the senses and the relations discovered by com- 
parison, discrimination and reflection. Knowledge can 
extend no further, therefore, than our own experience. 

Locke's Thoughts on Education originally consisted 
of personal letters to Edward Clarke about the training 
of Clarke's son. The opinions show keen observation 
rather than technical experience as an educator. Habits 

176 



LOCKE 

of efficiency under moral conduct of a gentleman are 
the desirable ends. Other thoughts are given in the 
following sections. 

333. Pedagogy. 

Speaking of essential principles, he says: ''These 
are: (1) in physical education, the hardening process; 
(2) intellectual education, practical utility; (3) in moral 
education, the principle of honor^ set up as a rule for 
the free self-government of man." 

Leading Thoughts 

334. Intellectual education. 

1. Universal education not favored. See Alfred the 

Great. 
a. Education for sons of gentlemen. 
h. Working schools for sons of laborers. 

2. Private tutor preferable to public schools. Danger 

from association with other pupils. 
8. Foreign travel a part of education. 

4. Concrete or objective method for alphabet, geogra- 

phy, etc. Use senses. 

5. Latin and French. Learn by conversation or inter- 

linear translations. No writing of Latin verses. 
See Montaigne. 

6. Music and poetry. None; each leads to bad asso- 

ciates. 

7. IMemory. Learn short, interesting passages that are 

clearly understood. Thoughts vs. words. Eote 
learning of grammar is wrong. 

8. Manual training. At least one trade for gentlemen. 

177 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 

335. Physical education. 

''A sound mind in a sound body." 

9. Recommendations: '' Plenty of open air, exercise, 

and sleep, plain diet; no wine or strong drink, 
and very little or no physic; not too warm and 
strait clothes, especially the head and feet kept 
cold, and the feet often used to cold water, and 
exposed to wet." 

10. Criticism. The hardening process by means of 

holes in boots, thin clothing^ hard fare, etc., is 
condemned by Spencer. 

336. Moral education. 

11. Leave to children, aside from fortune, (a) virtue, 

(&) prudence, (c) good manners, (d) instruction. 

12. Great principle is "that a man is able to deny 

himself his own desires." Self-mastery. 

13. Practice self-denial from infancy up. Establish 

parental authority without severity. 

14. Corporal punishment. None except for stubborn- 

ness and disobedience. 

15. Rewards and punishments should be of the mind, — 

esteem and disgrace. Open praise, private cen- 
sure. Reason with children. Develop honor. 

16. Habituate pupils to cheerfulness, pleasure and in- 

dustry. 

337. Locke's contribution. 

Thoughts on Education is classed as one of the best 
works on the theor}^ of education. Defective in not pro- 
viding for the education of all classes ; valuable in mak- 
ing specific proposals in both theory and practice ; a 
strong link in the series from Rabelais to Froebel. 

178 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 

338. Summary of Seventeenth Century. 

1. Utility in education. 

2. Modern science.encouraged. 

3. Care of the body: physiological education. 

4. Less use of the classical studies. 

5. Principles of modern education formulated. 



179 



Chapter XXIV 
THE NATURALISTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY 

340. Naturalists were innovators. 

The educators of the eighteenth century were exponents 
of the developed realism of the sixteenth century. They 
were both realists and innovators ; and so, too, the nine- 
teenth century educators will represent the cumulative 
result of all that was best in the three preceding cen- 
turies. 

341. Revolution. 

Civil and political unrest during this period: French 
Revolution. Desire for other and better organizations. 

342. Educational efforts. 

1. Pietism and Francke. 

2. Real School movement. 

3. Philanthropin and Basedow. 

4. University reform under Rollin. 

5. Emile and Rousseau. 

6. Kant's philosophy. 

I. Francke and the Pietists 

343. Reaction. 

Reaction in Protestantism against the Lutherans. 
More faith and less ceremony in religion. Real studies 
and German vs. classical course. 

180 



THE NATURALISTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY 

344. Halle. 

University at Halle founded 1691 nnder Spener. 

345. Francke. (1663 to 1727.) 

Francke called to teach Greek and Oriental languages. 
Remained thirty-six years. 

346. Institutions at Halle. 

1. Easter 1695, received $2.80. Opened free school and 

citizens' school. 

2. Orphan asylum and schools. 

3. Pedagogium for teachers. 

4. Established a Real School. 

5. Theological school. 

347. Results. 

1. Social and educational organization. 

2. Unification and application of best educational the- 

ories. 

3. Spread of enthusiastic spirit by students. 

77. Real Schools and Normal Schooh 

348. Real Schools. 

By some, credited to Francke; by Monroe (p. 498), 
to Johann Julius Hecker, a pupil of Francke. School 
organized 1747 at Berlin. Taught German, French, 
Latin, writing, drawing, history, geography, geometry, 
arithmetic, mechanics, architecture, religion and ethics. 
The Real School prepares for practical life; the Gym- 
nasium prepares for learned professions. Compare 
modern technical schools. 

The pedagogium at Halle opened the way to normal 

182 



BASEDOW 

schools. Frederick William I of Prussia is given credit 
for opening a teachers ' seminary at Stettin in 1735 with 
one of Francke's men in charge. (Compare Rheims, 
1685, Christian Brothers.) Hecker added a normal de- 
partment in Berlin in 1748, and this was adopted as a 
state institution by Frederick the Great. The first of 
these schools to be known as a normal school was in 
Vienna in 1771^ a school similar to American normal 
schools. The system was extended rapidly in Austria, 
while Germany extended her system of training schools. 
In 1738, Gesner made an effort in university instruction 
in pedagogy by opening a course at Gottingen Uni- 
versity. 

III. Basedow (1723 to 1790) and the Philanthropm. 
Germany 

349. Inspired by Emile. 

Salzmann and Campe, associates. Located at Dessau, 
where Ratke formerly taught. 

350. Basedow's Writings. 

1. Elementary Book, Elementarbuch, or Elementar- 

werk. 
a. Illustrated book based upon Comenius, Bacon, 

and Rousseau. 
h. Knowledge of things and words through natural 

phenomena. 

c. Moral education. 

d. Social, commercial, and economic affairs. 

2. Book of Methods. The natural method or the method 

of experience. 

183 



THE NATURALISTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY 

351. The Philanthropin or Philanthropinum. (1774 
to 1793.) 

1. Aim to educate youth in accordance with the laws 

of nature and humanity. Philanthropic basis. 

2. The school was non-sectarian, Germany not ready 

for this. 

3. Emphasis upon training of teachers affected entire 

German school system. 

4. The first recognition of manual training for its edu- 

cational value. 

5. Instruction from objects and pictures elaborated in 

actual practice. 

6. Physical training and other aims of the innovators. 

352. Value. 

1. Literature for children. The Swiss Family Robinson 

by Campe. 

2. Directed attention to more useful methods and re- 

sults. 

3. Prepared the way for Pestalozzi. 

IV. Charles Bollin (1661 to 1741). France 

353. Life. 

1. Master in College du Plessis when he was twenty- 

one. 

2. Professor in College of France from 1688 to 1736. 

3. Three times Rector of University of Paris. 

4. President of College de Beauvais from 1699 to 1712. 

He put new life into the teaching, modified the 
curriculum, and raised the standard of collegiate 
education to the highest standard in France. 
184 



ROLLIN 

354. Reforms. 

1. In studies. Real things as observed in geography 

and nature study; use of French in all subjects; 
history. 

2. jMethods. Articulation, pronunciation, correct use 

of words, interpretative grammar and language 
study; history used as means of forming intel- 
lectual and moral character; preparation of 
teachers to meet needs of pupils. 

3. School management. Influenced spirit and results 

of all grades of schools. 

355. Book. 

Treatise on Studies. Advocated matter and method 
approved to-day. 

356. Greek and Latin. 

1. Little Greek; enough to read understandingly. 

2. ]\Iaster Latin and use French in doing so. 

357. History. 

1. Wrote Ancient History. 

2. Purpose^ to vindicate the ways of God to men. 

358. Aims. 

flatter and method again clearly presented. Training 
of the senses is fundamental. 

1. Object lessons clearly described. 

2. First definite plan of applying the ideas of Co- 

menius and Locke. 

359. Service. 

Practical advance in course of study, school manage- 
ment, methods. 

185 



THE NATURALISTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY 

V. Bousseau (1712 to 1778). France 

360. Life. 

Jean Jacques Rousseau was born at Geneva, Switzer- 
land, June 28, 1712. Poor training, as mother was dead 
and father was bad. Gave away his five children to 
foundlings, and he was never able to recover them. 

361. Writings. 

1. Confessions: A revelation of himself. 

2. Social Contract. As government is a contract 
among the people, government can be dissolved when 
the people disagree. This principle incited the French 
Revolution and also enunciated the principle in our 
Declaration of Independence. 

3. Emile, a philosophical romance, not a formal trea- 
tise. Following is an excerpt : 

''We are born weak, we have need of help; we are 
born destitute of everything, we stand in need of assist- 
ance; we are born stupid, we have need of understand- 
ing. All that we are not possessed of at our birth, and 
which we require when grown up, is bestowed on us by 
education. This education we receive from nature, from 
men, or from circumstances. The constitutional exer- 
tion of our organs and faculties is the education of nat- 
ure; the uses we are taught to make of that exertion 
constitute the education given us by men; and in the 
acquisitions made by our own experience, on the objects 
that surround us, consists our education from circum- 
stances. We are formed, therefore, by three kinds of 
masters. Of these three different kinds of education, 
that of nature depends not on ourselves; and but in a 

186 '. 



EOUSSEAU 

pertain degree that of circumstances ; the third, which 
belongs to men, is that only we have in our power: and 
even of this we are masters only in imagination ; for who 
can flatter himself he will be able entirely to govern 
the discourse and actions of those who are about a 
child?" 

362. According to nature. 

The proper education takes the child from his parents, 
from society, and from the schools, and he is put under 
an ideal tutor who directs him in contact with nature. 

363. Meaning of nature in Emile. 

' ' Everything is good as it comes from the hand of the 
]\Iaker ; but everything degenerates in the hands of man. 
Our education comes from nature, from man, from 
things. Harmonize these three and we have good educa- 
tion. Harmony in education is obtained by subordinat- 
ing the education of man and of things to that of na- 
ture." 

1. Nature is a habit, education is anything but a habit. 

Habit has two meanings: unaltered instinctive 
judgments or primary emotions and those altered 
by experience with mankind. The former, that is, 
the primitive emotions or natural instincts, are 
the ones according to nature. 

2. In the social contract he describes the natural state 

of man as one founded upon a knowledge of the 
true nature of man, but not according to the so- 
ciety of the eighteenth century. The natural 
man is not the average man, but man governed 
and directed by the laivs of liis own nature. A 
187 



THE NATURALISTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY 

high state of culture couUl be secured on the 
ground of individual choice instead of that of 
arbitrary authority. 
3. Direct contact with the phenomena of nature is the 
third meaning of the phase according to nature. 
The evil influences from associating with men are 
counteracted by associating with animals, plants, 
and physical forces of all kinds. 

364. Negative education. 

The prevailing opinion of human nature was that man 
was bad and education must supplant the badness by 
goodness. See Port Royalists. Rousseau held contrary 
opinion. Education consisted not in teaching princi- 
ples of virtue or truth, hut in guarding the heart against 
vice and the mi'nd against error. By this he does not 
mean to reject all education, but to give an education of 
a different kind. He said : ' ' I call a positive education 
one that tends to form the mind prematurely, and to 
instruct the child in the duties that belong to a man. 
I call a negative education one that tends to perfect the 
organs that are the instruments of knowledge before 
giving this knowledge directly ; and that endeavors to 
prepare the way for reason by the proper exercises of 
the senses. A negative education does not mean a time 
of idleness ; far from it. It does not give virtue, it pro- 
tects from vice; it does not inculcate truth; it protects 
from error. It disposes the child to take the path that 
will lead him to truth, when he has reached the age to 
understand it; and to goodness, when he has acquired 
the faculty of recognizing and loving it." — From 
Emile. 

188 



THE NATURALISTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY 

365. Application of negative education. 

1. Physically^ this doctrine agreed practically with 

Locke. 

2. Intellectually, it gave little instruction until after 

the age of twelve. No reading, working or rea- 
soning until that time. 

3. Morally, it led to the doctrine of natural punish- 

ments or the discipline of consequences. This 
means that the child shall suffer the natural re- 
sults of his own acts without the intervention 
of human beings to protect or to punish. With 
Rousseau, the educator might correct the child if 
it appeared to the child that the punishment came 
as a natural consequence without human inter- 
ference. 

366. Illustration of natural punishment. 

* ' If the child is slow in dressing for a walk, leave him 
at home ; if he breaks a window, let him sit in the cold ; 
if he disobeys and gets wet, let him have a cold and be 
compelled to remain indoors; if he overeats, let him be 
sick; if he is indolent and will not perform tasks as- 
signed, let him go without food that would come as a 
result. ' ' 

367. Limitations on natural punishment. 

1. Value of such a principle depends upon connection 

of cause and effect ; but as the child before twelve 
cannot reason, there is no moral instruction in 
such a process. 

2. Under a sociological view of education the direct ef- 

190 



THE NATURALISTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY 

fects upon one individual are not the only stand- 
ard worthy of acceptance. The effect upon so- 
ciety may not be satisfied by the natural punish- 
ment of the wrongdoer. 

3. Such experience would form the judgment of acts 

from consequences not from methods. No posi- 
tive moral character from such effects upon child- 
hood. 

4. The ultimate results might be far beyond repair be- 

fore the child would be old enough to understand 
the consequences. 

368. Stages in education. 

Though wrong in his divisions, Rousseau directed at- 
tention to the fact that the child has periods of aptitude 
in education. 

1. From 1 to 5 years of age. 

a. Father the natural teacher, mother the natural 
nurse. 

&. Physical training free from customary re- 
straints. 

c. Excessive praise of sports, games, etc. 

d. Little attention to intellect and morals. 

2. From 5 to 12. 

a. Negative education. 
h. Natural punishment. 

c. No intellectual training. 

d. A natural training of senses through observing 

all his environment. 

e. **He measures, weighs, counts, compares^ draws 

conclusions, tests inferences, discovers the 
principles. ' ' 

192 



ROUSSEAU 

3. From 12 to 15. Period for the acquisition of knowl- 

edge. 

a. Curiosity is the sole motive and the sole guide. 

h. Robinson Crusoe, the text-book of life accord- 
ing to nature. 

c. Emile learns a trade to show that he overcomes 
the prejudice against it. Manual training 
considered important. 

4. From 15 to 20. Period for training the heart. 

a. Educated for life and social relationships. 

h. Love for others, the great motive. 

c. Importance of adolescence in education. 

d. Strictly moral and religious education. Name 

of God never heard before. 

369. Education of women. 

1. Sophia educated simply as a companion for Emile. 

This follows the fundamental doctrine of Rous- 
seau, which stated that all education is for the 
individual. 

2. "A woman of culture is the plague of her husband, 

her children, her family, her servants, — every- 
body." 

370. Results or influence. 

1. Education is a natural, not an artificial process. 

2. It is a development from within, not an accretion 

from without. 

3. It comes from the workings of natural instincts and 

interests and not through response to external 
force. 

4. It is an expansion of natural powers, not an acquisi- 

tion of information. 

193 



THE NATURALISTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY 

5. It is life, it is not a preparation for future state, 
remote in interests and characteristics from the 
life of childhood. 

371. Corollaries. 

1. Education is a process of living that lasts all through 

life. 

2. Natural, concrete, objective methods of teaching are 

required by the nature of the child. 

372. Pedagogical merit of Emile. 

1. Praiseworthy study of child nature. 

2. Exalted the necessity of sense instruction and bodily 

health. 

3. Definite insight into the child's point of view in 

learning geography, history and physics. 

4. Education of girls is well treated in the fifth book. 

373. Foundation of recent educational development. 

1. The fundamental idea that education is a natural 

process gave rise to the psychological tendency in 
education. 

2. Rousseau 's teaching that educational material should 

be the facts and phenomena of nature, and an 
inquiry into various laws, is the basis of the 
scientific tendency in modern education. 

3. Rousseau's teaching that education should aim to 

develop the virtues of the primitive man, that it 
should prepare the individual to live in a so- 
ciety where he should have relations to other in- 
dividuals, is the basis of sociological tendency in 
education. 

194 



THE NATURALISTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY 

4. In literature he stimulated the romantic movement 
of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. 



VI. Kant (1724-1804) 

374. German philosopher. 

Representative of the psychological tendency in edu- 
cation. Influenced by Locke and Rousseau. 

375. Teacher. 

Professor of logic and metaphysics at Konigsberg. 
In 1803, lectures published under title On Education. 

376. Definition of education. 

Education is the development in man of all the per- 
fection which his nature permits. 

377. Leading thoughts. 

1. Chief interest is character development, a practical 

education combining the conduct and the training 
of the will. 

2. Emphasized sociological duties of the individual. 

3. Do not break the will but train it to yield to natural 

obstacles. Breaking means slavery; natural op- 
position brings tractableness. Direct influence 
upon Herbert Spencer. Traits of desirable char- 
acter are obedience, truthfulness, sociality and 
candor. 

4. Inculcated religious ideas as laws or duties, not as 

matters of memory or imitation. 

5. Hinted at culture epoch theory. 

196 



KANT 

378. Summary. 

Kant's value lies in giving clear expression to funda- 
mental points of view rather than in making a practical 
application of them. 

379. Summary for 18th century. 

1. Child study instituted. 

2. Education is a natural process; development an 

ideal. 

3. Matter must be adapted to the child. 

4. Improved methods of teaching. 

5. A period of definition, classification, and helpful ex- 

perimentation. 



197 



Chapter XXV 
PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION 

I. Festalozzi (1746-1827). Switzerland 
Naturalist and Innovator 

381. Biography. 

1. Father died when Pestalozzi was five. 

2. Narrow training at home and in school. 

3. Emile awakened a desire for educational and social 

freedom. 

4. From clergyman to lawj^er; greater usefulness. 

5. Farmer; failure and bankruptcy. 

6. Asylum for poor at Neuhof. Another failure. 

7. Eighteen years of poverty; writing books. 

8. Schoolmaster ; orphan asylum at Stanz ; successful 

methods of teaching. 

9. Primary schools at Burgdorf and Yverdun: success 

and fame. 

382. Writings. 

1. Evening Hour of a Ilermit: educational maxims 

(1780). 

2. Leonard and Gertrude (1781). Depicts ideal vil- 

lage life in Switzerland. Gertrude, a pattern for 
all mothers, properly trains her children. All 
198 



PESTALOZZI 

mothers may follow sucli principles and thus ele- 
vate peasant life. 

3. How Gertrude Teaches her Children (1801). Prac- 

tical exposition of his principles of teaching. Ob- 
servation, i. e., the uses of the senses, is the foun- 
dation of education. 

4. The A B C of Sense Perception (1801). 

5. The Book for Mothers (1801). 

6. The Song of the Dying Swan (1826). 

383. Fundamental ideas. 

1. Education an organic process. It is the harmonious 

development of all powers. Compare unfolding 
of physical nature according to eternal laws. 

2. Psychological foundation for all education and in- 

struction according to nature's laws. 

3. The human mind is neither a tablet nor a vessel; it 

is a real, living power that unfolds according to 
its own laws. 

4. Moral culture is the unfolding of the will through 

love, gratitude, and confidence^ as seen in rela- 
tion of mother to child. 

5. Intellectual culture is the unfolding of the power of 

reason through habituation to use. Aim, clear 
concepts; starting point, sense perception; proc- 
ess, passing from percepts to concepts and then 
from concepts back to percepts. 

6. Physical culture is the development of many-sided 

physical powers through habituation to use. 
(Self-activity again.) Aim: power, graceful car- 
riage, and skill in handicrafts and arts; starting 
pointy movement. 

199 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION 

7. Conditions of mind in education are spontaneity and 
self-activity. 

384. Characteristic principles. 

1. Enthusiasm: service to humanity. 

2. Love: *' maternal love is the first agent in education; 

a thinking love." 

3. Sense experience. All knowledge comes from sensa- 

tion plus observation and reflection. 

4. Things before words : concrete to abstract. 

5. Object lessons combining sense training and passing 

from concrete to abstract. Three means of get- 
ting clear concepts. 
a. Language : exactness of speech in expression. 
h. Form : observation ; measuring, drawing, writ- 
ing. 
c. Number is always certain; language and form 
may be inaccurate; therefore arithmetic ex- 
alted. 

6. Instructing is not amusing; exertion needed for 

knowledge. 

385. Influence of Pestalozzi. 

1. Purpose. Education of the masses is the chief means 

of social reform. 

2. New meaning of education. Organic development 

of all powers of individual. 

3. On means and methods. 

a. Analysis of knowledge into simplest elements 

for adaptation. 
h. Object lessons as intuitive basis for entire 

mental development. 
c. Mental arithmetic exalted. 
200 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION 

d. Writing and drawing as means of expression. 

(Visualization; motor activity.) 

e. Language by graphic methods. 

/. Home geography; correlated nature work. 
4. On spirit of schools. Love, sympathy, interest; the 
spirit of the home transferred to the school. 

11. Froehel (1782 to 1852). Germany 

386. Biography. 

1. Friedrich Froebel was born at Oberweissbach, a vil- 

lage in Thuringia, in 1782. Mother died; little 
attention from father. 

2. Grew close to nature. 

3. Attended University of Jena a short time, but was 

unsuccessful. 

4. Studied farming^ and worked at forestry. 

5. Teacher in normal school at Frankfort. Became a 

student of education. 

6. Visited Pestalozzi at Yverdon and remained two 

years; returned to Frankfort; studied at Uni- 
versity of Gottingen two years and at Berlin 
one year ; a soldier, 1813-14. 

7. Opened Universal German Educational Institute at 

Griesheim and moved it to Keilhau, 1817. Insti- 
tute sacked and ruined, 1829. Returned to Keil- 
hau, 1832 ; to Burgdorf as director of orphanage, 
conceived idea of kindergarten and planned edu- 
cation of mothers. 

8. Institution for the Nurture of Little Children at 

Blankenburg, 1837. Makes use of name kinder- 
garten in 1840. 

202 



FROEBEL 

387. Writings. 

1. The Education of Man deals chiefly with the first 

seven years of childhood. 

2. Songs for 31 other and Nursery. 

388. Meaning of the name kindergarten. 

As planned by Froebel, it is not a school ; it is a chil- 
dren's garden. It is intended for pupils three to seven 
years of age. Its purpose is stated by Froebel : 

''To take the oversight of children before they are 
ready for school life; to exert an influence over their 
whole being in correspondence with its nature; to 
strengthen their bodily powers ; to exercise their senses ; 
to eniplo}^ the awakening mind; to make them thought- 
fully acquainted with the world of nature and of man ; 
to guide their heart and soul in the right direction, and 
to lead them to the origin of all life and to union with 
Him." 

389. Pedagogy. 

1. Religion in education. "All education not founded 

on religion is unproductive." 

2. Self-activity. This is the fundamental characteristic. 

Pestalozzi said the faculties were developed by 
exercise; Froebel sought to arouse voluntary ac- 
tivity. 

3. Play. One means of directing voluntary activity in 

education. Every game has educational value. 

4. Productiveness. ''A child may forget what he sees, 

and more still what is said to him, but he never 
forgets what he has made." (Rousseau.) Oc- 
cupations satisfy the constructive instinct. Com- 
pare manual training today. 
203 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION 

5. Social action. This activity habituates the child to 
proper relations to humanity. Compare sociologi- 
cal view of education. 

390. Features of the kindergarten. 

1. An educative system of play. Little direct instruc- 

tion; children are amused, interested, and di- 
rected to observe, to think, and to do through the 
use of toys (gifts) and play (occupations). 

2. Harmonious development of all powers the initiative 

coming voluntarily from the child's instincts or 
impulses. 

3. Froebel's gifts are kinds of playthings, but their 

great value is the unity and continuity of edu- 
cative development of the child. Songs and 
dances serve as variety in the play. 

4. First Gift. The Ball. 

a. Materials. Worsted balls of different colors sus- 
pended by strings. 

h. Aims. Observation — training the eye to color; 
motor activity — exercise of limbs in raising 
and lowering ball, passing right to left, 
etc., in game; to teach directions, properties, 
etc. 

c. Advantages. Fellowship in united action; gen- 
tleness, pleasure, conscious growth; mental, 
moral and physical results from the first exer- 
cise. 

391. Summary. 

Theory and practice of the kindergarten are clearly 
shown in Dexter and Garlick's PsycJiology, page 94. 

204 



FEATURES OF KINDERGARTEN 

The Child possesses: 

1. Spontaneous activity. 

2. Dislike of continued application. 

3. Delight in handling things. 

4. A liking for colors rather than for form. 

5. ]\Iarked imitative powers. 

6. ]\Iarked imaginative powers. 

7. Some sympathy. 

8. Strong verbal memory. 

9. Weak discriminative power. 

10. Weak powers of judgment and reasoning. 

11. Weak moral sense. 

llie Kindergarten System recognizes: 

1. That this spontaneous activity must be diverted 

into educational channels. 

2. That lessons should be short. 

3. That the child should handle the ' ' gifts. ' ' 

4. That the commencement should be made with col- 

ored objects. 

5. That the child should imitate the teacher. 

6. That the imagination should be employed in nam- 

ing forms made in paper folding, etc. 

7. That sympathy should be cultivated chiefly through 

pity. 

8. That the memory may be usefully employed in 

learning songs, etc. 

9. That the differences presented to the child's notice 

should be large. 

10. That it is inadvisable to endeavor to evoke these 

too much. 

11. That the moral sense may be trained through sym- 

pathy and regard for law and order, etc. 
205 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION 

392. Contributions. 

1. Practical application of best features of educational 

theories. 

2. Self-activity of the learner can be utilized in all 

schools. 

3. The course of study must be correlated with the 

child and with life. 

4. Child nature determines educational processes. 

5. Education is development ; a phase of evolution. 

III. John Frederick Herhart (1776 to 1841). Germany 

393. Biography. 

1. Student under Fichte at Jena. 

2. Private tutor in Berne, Switzerland. 

3. In communication with Pestalozzi. 

4. Professor of philosophy at Konigsberg; successor to 

Kant (1809). 

5. Established a practice school in connection with de- 

partment of pedagogy in the university. The 
first of its kind. Compare 348. 

394. System. 

Completed and systematized Pestalozzi 's views. 

1. Pestalozzi wished to ''psychologize education"; Her- 

bart accomplished it. 

2. Pestalozzi went as far as training the senses; Iler- 

bart explained how sense perception is converted 
into clear ideas by apperception. 

3. Pestalozzi had no logical form or system; Herbart 

made such a system. 

206 



HERBART 

395. A series. 

1. Locke made the child the center of theory and effort 

in education. 

2. Rousseau outlined a form of training for one child. 

3. Pestalozzi put the theory into concrete application 

in the schoolroom. 

4. Herbart gave it a scientific basis, a psychological jus- 

tification. 

396. Writings. 

1. A B C of Intuition (1804). This explained Pes- 

talozzi 's views. 

2. General Pedagogics (1806). 

3. Education Under Fiihlic Cooperation. Teachers are 

experts whom parents should consult. 

4. Relation of the School to Life. Application of home 

rule (self-control) to every school. 

5. Tlie Esthetic Presentation of the Universe as the 

Chief Aim of Education. 

397. His psychological views. 

1. Rejected belief in existence of distinct faculties. 

2. The soul is a unity with the one power of entering 

relationship with its environment through sense- 
perception. 

3. Interactions of presentations of sense-perception lead 

through generalizations to concepts, and thence 
by other interactions to judgment and reasoning. 
(See Formal Steps of Instruction.) 

4. Presentations are of two kinds. 

a. Experience, from which knowledge comes. 
h. Intercourse with society, from which social sym- 
pathy develops. 

207 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION 

'). Keynote is apperception, — the assimilative power of 
the mind through its own guided activity. 

398. His pedagogy. 

1. Aim of education is a moral-religious character. 

2. Conform to the laws of human development as 

learned from exact psychology and sympathetic 
study of children. 

3. The will exalted. Educative instruction must form 

the circle of thought so that right judgment and 
right willing must result. 

4. Specific object of instruction is to stimulate and 

develop many-sided, equilibrious (harmonious) 
direct interest. 

5. K^inds of interest. 

fempirical 
a. Interests of knowledge - speculative 

esthetic 

I sympathetic 
social 
religious 

6. Subject matter of instruction is found in the sci- 

ences. 
a. Natural sciences for 5 a. 
h. Historical sciences for 5 h. 

7. Method of instruction necessitates attention^ ab- 

sorption and reflection. Use Formal Steps. 

8. Concentration. All instruction must be tending to 

a central core. Used literature or literature and 
history. 

9. Use the things themselves or representations of the 

things. 

208 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION 

10. Self-activity of the pupil under instruction and 
guidance is the only way to character. 

399. Contributions. 

1. Unified prior and existing processes in education. 

2. Founded the science of education. 

400. Comparison. 

Pestalozzi, Herbart, Proebel. 

1. Herbart exalted the process of instruction, the 

method, the function of the teacher; Froebel ex- 
alted the material of instruction, the environment 
of the school, the importance of the child. 

2. Herbart made instruction a means of forming moral 

character; Froebel made the stimulated activities 
of the child a way to character; Pestalozzi gave 
direct training in moral virtues. 

3. Pestalozzi showed how to form clear percepts through 

trained senses; Herbart advanced psychologic^ally 
by making percepts into concepts through apper- 
ception ; Froebel worked back from percepts into 
the inherent character of child nature and made 
the volitional character of the human mind the 
foundation of education. 

IV. Jacotot (1770-1840). F^^ance, Belgium 

401. Teacher. 

Jean Joseph Jacotot, a French mathematician, was 
the originator of what is called the universal method 
in education. His own diversified experience explains 
the general nature of his sayings called paradoxes. He 

210 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION 

concluded that success is possible in many fields, as he 
was successful as teacher of Latin, Greek, French, 
mathematics and Roman law ; as soldier, member of 
Chamber of Deputies, lecturer and director of military 
school in Belgium. He was driven from France by 
Bourbons; he became Professor in the University of 
Louvain, Belgium. 

402. Text-book. 

In his classes in Louvain, he used Fenelon's Telemaque 
with French in one column and Flemish translation in 
the other. French was quickly learned entirely by the 
efforts of the students. 

403. Paradoxes. 

1. "All human beings are equally capable of learning." 

Not so ; the truth in it means that learning de- 
pends upon the will. He derived this principle 
from observation of mental progress of his Flem- 
ish students. 

2. "Every one can teach; and, moreover, can teach that 

which he does not know himself." His mean- 
ing of teach is causing to learn. Not true in sci- 
ence, music, drawing and many other subjects. 
The truth in it relates to stimulating self-activity 
of pupils, as he did in Louvain. 

3. ''Tout est dans tout," "All is in all." Insisted 

upon memorizing six books of Telemaque. Then, 
with this knowledge as an apperceptive mass or 
basis, students could acquire all related knowl- 
edge. As no bit of knowledge can exist alone or 
isolated in the mind, this core, thoroughly mas- 
212 



JACOTOT 

terecl, makes it possible to master all other matter 
in French. Apperception and correlation used. 

404. Value of Jacotot's universal method. 

1. Something thoroughly mastered. 

2. Other facts correlated with this. 

3. Success from such self-activity enkindles interest. 

4. Did he not carry repetition too far? 

5. His comparison and verification coordinated ele- 

mentary method with the method of investiga- 
tion. 

6. Four steps make a plan in teaching pupils how to 

study: Learn, repeat, compare^ verify. 

V. Ilerhert Spencer (1820 to 1903). England 

405. Science. 

Represented the scientific tendency in education. Re- 
call the attention to Latin and Greek languages under 
humanism and observe that linguistic studies are still 
a recognized part of courses of study. Science consti- 
tutes another important department of education to- 
day, but the development of science as content and scien- 
tific method is recent. Spencer is the leading advocate 
of the scientific tendency in education. See 373 for 
influence of Rousseau. 

406. Book. 

In 1860, he wrote Education, Intellectual, Moral, and 
Physical. Agrees with Bacon regarding purpose, basis 
and method of education. Agrees with Rousseau in the 
use of natural punishments. 

213 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION 

407. Definition. 

^'Education is a preparation for complete living. The 
knowledge that is of most worth is that w^hich most ef- 
fectively promotes complete living." 

408. Activities constituting complete living. 

In classifying the knowledge that is of most worthy 
Spencer made five divisions. 

1. Direct self-preservation, 

2. Indirect self-preservation. All those needfnl for the 

necessaries of life. 

3. The rearing of children. 

4. Social demands and citizenship. 

5. Literature, art, esthetics, etc., for the leisure part 

of life. 

409. Sciences predominant. 

Natural sciences for the first three, social sciences for 
the fourth, and then culture subjects for the fifth in 

408. 

410. Utilitarian scheme. 

Culture studies put last, but Spencer would have all 
secure some knowledge of each group mentioned. To 
him, science included all the sciences of nature, so- 
ciology, psychology, mathematics and history, the sci- 
ence of language alone being excluded. 

411. Criticism. 

1. Meaning of complete living. Satisfactory definition 

has not been given ; too much variety in demands 
of different countries and different civilizations. 

2. The use of the term science. See 410. Too broad. 

3. Spencer has omitted what constitutes man's worth 

214 



PSYCIIOLOGTCAL TENDENCY IN EDTTCATTON 

in those activities in relation to others, i. e., all 
that makes np character. 

4. Impossible for pupils to comprehend the scientific 

treatment under the first three headings. 

5. Spencer's effort to outline a scheme intended to cor- 

rect the one-sided ness of linguistic education has 
produced a one-sidedness in scientific education. 

412. Contributions. 

1. Directed attention to the value of science as suitable 

material and method in education. 

2. Made the principles of Pestalozzi and other inno- 

vators familiar to {^English-speaking people. 

a. From simple to complex. 

b. From concrete to abstract. 

c. From known to related unknown. 

d. From empirical to rational. Recall Locke's the- 

ory of knowledge. 

e. Self -development through self-activity. 

3. Directed attention to natural means in discipline by 

advocating the theory of natural punishments or 
the discipline of consequences. This theory does 
not, however, admit universal application. See 
367. 

4. Justification of rational physical education; refuted 

the hardening process of Locke. 

VI. Thomas Arnold (1795-1842). England 

413. Early life. 

1. Born at Cowes, Isle of Wight. 

2. A pupil at Warminster, where he was influenced by 

reading Priestley's Lectures on History. 
216 



THOMAS ARNOLD 

3. A pupil at Winchester where he became familiar with 
monitorial system, the discipline of boys^ and the 
general management of one of the noted public 
schools. This observation aided him in develop- 
ing Rugby. 

413. Oxford. 

1. At sixteen, student in Oxford. Associated with 

Coleridge, John Keble, the writer of hymns, 
Whately, afterwards Archbishop of Dublin, and 
John Henry Newman. Greatly influenced by per- 
sonal association. 

2. Wordsworth's Lyrical Ballads charmed him, the 

study of the Lake poets imbued him with lofty 
and imaginative thoughts which influenced his 
whole spiritual life. 

3. Ordained priest in the Episcopal church in 1818, 

and served nine years. Interested in the poor; 
direct social contact made a means of improving 
the community. Became tutor of boys and de- 
veloped unusual power in teaching on account 
of his intense earnestness. 

414. Rugby. 

Became headmaster in August, 1828. Frankly help- 
ful to assistants, morally severe but honest with boys, 
independent in thought and speech at all times. "It is 
not necessary that this should be a school of 300 or 100 
or 50 boys ; but it is necessary that it should be a school 
of Christian gentlemen." 

415. Characteristics. 

Earnestness, thoroughness, frankness, sincerity. 

217 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION 

416. Influence. 

1. Reformed the public schools of England. He modi- 

fied severity of punishment in upper classes, and 
restricted flogging to moral offenses. 

2. Made character an educational ideal. He placed 

aims of school life in the order (a) religious and 
moral principles, (&) gentlemanly conduct, (c) 
intellectual ability. 

3. Implicit trust in students was an incentive for self- 

control. 

4. Individual instruction: reciprocal relations between 

teacher and pupil in conduct, scholarship and 
character. 

417. Estimate. 

* ' The most famous modern schoolmaster. ' ' 

418. Reference. 

Eead Tom Brown's School Days by Hughes. 

YII. Alexander Bain (1818 to 1903). Scotland 

419. Teacher. 

Professor of logic in University of Aberdeen. 

420. Writer. 

Exponent of physiological psychology. Several edu- 
cational books; Education as a Science (1878). 

421. Influence. 

Conservation and correlation of forces. Attention di- 
rected to the necessity of harmonizing mental and physi- 
cal relations. Think of present study of fatigue, nerv- 
ous disorders^ defective children. 

218 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION 

VIIL Joseph Payne (1807 to 1876). England 

422. Teacher. 

1. Tutor. 

2. Teacher in private schools. 

3. Public lecturer on education. 

4. First professor of art and science of education in 

England. Chair in College of Preceptors. 

5. Exponent of views of Froebel and Jacotot. 

423. Influence. 

1. Book. Lectures on the Science and Art of Educa- 

tion. A plain, practical treatise. 

2. Introduced system of examination of teachers. 

3. Made English public familiar with phases of educa- 

tion as a national institution. 

IX. Rosmini (1797 to 1855). Italy 

1. Antonio Rosmini-Serbati, descendant of a noble 
and wealthy family, became a Catholic priest and 
founded a religious order, the Institute of Charity, 
known also as the Rosminians. The order includes 
Brothers of Charity and Sisters of Charity, or Sisters 
of Providence. The work of the order includes charity, 
Sunday schools, elementary schools and pedagogical 
training of teachers. 

2. He wrote New Essays on the Origin of Ideas, 
Principles of Moral Science, and chapters on Unity of 
Education and Liberty of Teaching. 

3. Rosmini's contribution to education is a system of 
philosophy which harmonizes scholasticism and modern 

220 



ROSMINI 

thought. His analysis of mental activity combines in- 
tellect and will under apperception. He made use of 
Herbart's conception of apperception and interest, but 
he did not know Herbart ; and Froebel's conception of 
education as development is included. Rosmini argued 
that thought serves as matter for a subsequent thought 
and thus a close series is formed in the natural order 
of apperception. ''All the thoughts that ever entered, 
or can enter, the mind of man are distributed and 
classified into so many different orders according to this 
law. Those orders are: 

''First;, thoughts that do not derive their matter from 
previous thoughts. . 

"Second, thoughts that derive their matter from 
thoughts of the first order, and from no others. 

"Third, thoughts that derive their matter from 
thoughts of the second order (and so on). 

"This series of orders is endless; hence the infinite 
development to which the human intelligence is or- 
dained." 

On this theory, Rosmini framed a table showing the 
intellect act and the corresponding act of the will in 
each of the four orders of thought. In the first order, 
there is intellectual perception of the subsistent thing 
and affectional volition of the thing as a whole. In the 
second order, there is intellectual abstraction of the 
qualities presented by the senses and affectional voli- 
tion directed to the sensible quality abstracted. In the 
third order, there is synthetic association of the interest- 
ing quality of the thing and the thing itself and a re- 
sulting judgment; and appreciated volition directed to 
the object in proportion to the extent to which the mind 

221 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION 

recognizes the quality as a quality of the thing. In the 
fourth order, there is comparison of the two objects 
judged and the formation of a third judgment, or an 
appreciation of one; and there is appreciative volition 
showing choice between the two objects. 

Recall Herbart's formal steps of instruction as an in- 
tellectual process; compare with Rosmini's process and 
observe in the latter a blending of religion and educa- 
tion so that the intellect and the will shall cooperate 
in development that insures moral and intellectual free- 
dom. Rosmini deserves recognition as an organizer of 
conflicting opinions, a leader in showing the function 
of the will in a unified process in education. 

X. William T. Harris (1835 to 1908). 

1. Born in Connecticut, studied in Yale, teacher and 
superintendent in St. Louis, 1857 to 1889, United States 
Commissioner of Education, 1889 to 1896. 

2. Student of philosophy and psychology nearly fifty 
years. Founded Journal of Speculative Philosophy. 

3. The first great educational philosopher in America. 
Value of his philosophic study evident in all his work. 
Annual Reports in St. Louis and in Washington ; editor 
of International Educational Series; editor-in-chief of 
Webster's New International Dictionary; member of 
Committee of Fifteen; author of Psychologic Founda- 
tions of Education ; wrote on nearly five hundred sub- 
jects relating to education. 

4. Three purposes in his educational activity. 
a. To psychologize education. 

h. To exalt the school as a sociological institution. 
222 



HINSDALE 

c. To reorganize processes so tliat education should 
be on a permanent foundation. The respective 
agencies were analyzed and classified so that 
each should contribute to education as the in- 
stitution which enables man to work out his 
destiny according to the will of God. 

XL Burke A. Hinsdale (1837 to 1900). 

1. Born in Ohio, educated at Eclectic Institute (later 
Hiram College), clergyman, president of Hiram Col- 
lege. 

2. Superintendent of schools in Cleveland, 1882 to 
1886, and, 1888 to 1900, professor of science and art of 
education in University of Michigan. 

3. His writings are valued on account of clear grasp 
of the needs of the schoolroom, breadth of knowledge in 
subject-matter to be taught, and aptness in applying 
the principles of psychology to methods of teaching and 
school management. 

The Art of Study. 
Studies in Education. 
Jesus as an Educator. 
How to Teach and Study History. 
Teaching the Language Arts. 

Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the 
United States. 



223 



Chapter XXVI 

EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 

424. Bureau of Education. 
The Bureau of Education was made a department 
March 2, 1867, but in 1868 reduced to a division 
of the Department of the Interior. No power 
over state educational systems. Chief services 
are in collecting and distributing educational in- 
formation. 
a. Annual Reports. 
h. Bulletins. 

c. Circulars of Information. 
Divisions of Bureau. 
a. School sanitation and hygiene. 
h. Higher education. 

c. School administration. 

d. Eural education. 

e. Editorial division. 
/. Library. 

Commissioners. 
Henry Barnard, 1867 to 1870. 
John Eaton, 1870 to 1886. 
Nathaniel H. R. Dawson, 1886 to 1889. 
William T. Harris, 1889 to 1906. 
Elmer E. Brown, 1906 to 1911. 
Philander P. Claxton, 1911 to date. 
224 



EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 

425. State systems. 

The state systems are in charge of commissioners of 
education or superintendents of public instruction and 
governing organizations known as boards of regents or 
boards of education. While the standards of efficiency 
vary, all the states are working toward the large ideals 
of universal and compulsory education. The ultimate 
aim is to give the advantages of education to every per- 
son who is capable of profiting by the training that is 
offered. 

The development of the various grades of schools is 
indicated by the history of some of the colonies which 
may be studied as types. Judgment of lapses, defects 
and faults should be tempered by consideration of the 
difficulties which pioneers had to meet. 

426. National measures to promote education. 

1785. Sections of townships in the western territory 
reserved for school purposes. 

1836. Division of national surplus among states. 
1862. Land scrip granted for agricultural colleges. 

427. Characteristics of educational advancement. 

1. Increase in number of colleges and universities. 

2. Adaptation of high schools or academies to local 

needs. 

3. Establishment of system of elementary schools. 

4. Courses of study enlarged, enriched, and pre- 

scribed. 

5. Methods of teaching improved by making the ap- 

peal humane, objective, adapted; by enabling 
child to do for himself under the principles of 
225 



EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 

interest, self-activity and motor expression; and 
by leading pupils to feel the direct relationship 
of the work to the experiences of life. 

6. Eecognition of the needs and rights of girls. 

7. Gradual development toward all kinds of useful in- 

struction under the ideals of free, compulsory, 
universal education. 

Massachusetts 

428. Favorable conditions. 

All had some education and, in Plymouth and Massa- 
chusetts Bay colonies, one man in every 250 was a gradu- 
ate from an English university. 

429. Boston Latin School, 1635. 

The town, five years old, requested Brother Philemon 
Purport to become schoolmaster. The Latin School 
traces its history to this event. Ezekiel Cheever, the 
most famous teacher, was in the Latin School thirty- 
eight years. In 1636, the General Court appropriated 
$2,000 toward a school or college, which was lo- 
cated at Newtown in 1637. Foundation of Harvard 
College. 

430. Harvard College, 1638. 

John Harvard bequeathed his library and half his 
property. Name of town changed from Newtown to 
Cambridge in honor of John Harvard's alma mater. 

Other towns made provision for schools: Charles- 
town employed William Witherell, in 1636, for twelve 
months for $200; in 1637 Rev. John Fiske in Salem; 

226 



MASSACHUSETTS 

in 1639 Dorchester, school supported by tax; in 1639 
Newburg- granted ten acres to Anthony Somerby to open 
a school ; Ipswich, 1641 ; Cambridge, 1642 ; Roxbury, 
1645. 

431. Laws. 

In 1642 Massachusetts law for support of common 
schools. Schools not free, but in 1647 schools made 
free. The law of 1642 was an attempt to provide for 
all as a few towns had provided individually. The law 
of 1647, know^n as "that old deluder Satan law/' is 
referred to as the mother of all our school laws. It 
is the foundation of the Massachusetts school system. 
Harvard College was in existence, and this law required 
every town of fifty families to employ a schoolmaster, 
and every town of one hundred families to provide a 
grammar school to prepare students for college. In 
1691 the united colonies provided for town schools, 
course of study, support by taxation, and certification 
of teachers. 

Elijah Corlett was a noted teacher in Cambridge 
forty-three years. 

432. Constitution of 1789. 

1. District system legalized. 

2. Towns of 50 families support an English school six 

months; 100 families, English school twelve 
months; 150 families, English school six months 
and grammar school twelve months ; 200 families, 
both schools twelve months. 

3. All high school teachers must be college graduates, 

or men certified by learned minister. 
227 



EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 

•±. Elementary teachers must be citizens of United 

States and must hold certificate. 
5. Ministers and selectmen a visiting committee. 

433. Academies. 

1. Fifty years of weakness in education. Town schools 

declined on account of breaking into districts and 
the coming of the moving school. 

2. The endowed academies replaced the older grammar 

schools. The first endowed academy was New- 
burg in 1763. In 1778 Phillips Academy at 
Andover; in 1784 Leicester Academy; and by 
1840 there were 112 academies preparing boys 
for college. Better curriculum than the grammar 
schools had but the exalted idea of private school 
education was an obstacle to public education. 

434. State support. 

1. In 1647 taxation for schools was permitted, but the 

law of 1827 enforced taxation for school support. 

2. School fund provided by sale of Maine lands; not 

to exceed one million dollars. 

3. In 1836 first law regulating child labor. Children 

under fifteen not to be employed unless they 
attended school three months during the school 
year. 

4. Massachusetts State Board of Education, 1837. On 

June 29, 1837, Horace Mann was elected first 
secretary. 

435. Horace Mann (1796-1859). 

1. Brown University, lawyer, Mass. legislature, Con- 
gress. 

228 



EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 

2. 1837-1849, Secretary Mass. State Board of Educa- 

tion. 

3. Twelve Annual Eeports. Seventh Annual Report is 

valuable discussion of European Schools. 

4. Aims. 

a. Consolidation of small schools. 

&. Elevation of standard of teaching. 

c. Normal schools. 

d. Longer school terms. ^ 

e. School libraries. 

/. Enriched curriculum. 
g. Milder discipline. 

5. Results. Positive success in all his aims excepting 

consolidation of district schools. That came in 
1859 ; permanent in 1882. 

6. First great American school organizer, sometimes 

called Father of Common School System in the 
United States. 

7. President of Antioch College, Ohio. From his last 

address : ' ' Be ashamed to die until you have won 
some victory for humanity. ' ' 



436. Educational institutions. 

Nine normal scJiools. Bridgewater, Fitchburg, 
Framingham (formerly Lexington opened 
1839), Hyannis, Lowell, North Adams, Salem, 
Westfield (formerly Barre opened 1839), and 
Worcester. 

Technical work. Massachusetts Agricultural Col- 
lege at Amherst, Institute of Technology at 
Boston, Worcester Polytechnic Listitute. 
230 



CONNECTICUT 

3. Colleges and Universities. 



INSTITUTION 


LOCATION 


OPENED 


CONTROL 


FOR 


Harvard University .... 


Cambridge. . . . 


1638 


Nonsectarian 


Men 


Williams College 


Williamstown 


1793 


Nonsectarian 


Men 


Amherst College 


Amherst 


1821 


Nonsectarian 


Men 


]\It. Holyoke College . . . 


South Hadley . 


1837 


Nonsectarian 


Women 


College of the Holy 












Worcester .... 
Auburndale . . . 


1843 
1851 


R. C. 

Nonsectarian 


Men 


Lasell Seminary 


Women 


Tufts College 


Tufts College . 


1854 


Nonsectarian 


Both sexes 


Massachusetts Institute 










of Technology 


Boston 


, 1865 


Nonsectarian 


Both sexes 


Massachusetts Agricul- 










tural College 


Amherst 


1867 


State 


Both sexes 


Worcester Polytechnic 










Institute 


Worcester .... 
Boston 


1868 
1873 


Nonsectarian 
M. E. 


Men 


Boston University 


Both sexes 


Smith College 


Northampton . 


1875 


Nonsectarian 


Women 


Wellesley College 


Wellesley 


1875 


Nonsectarian 


Women 


Radcliffe College 


Cambridge 


1879 


Nonsectarian 


Women 


Clark University 


Worcester .... 


-1889 


Nonsectarian 


Both sexes 


Simmons College 


Boston 


1902 


Nonsectarian 


Both sexes 



Connecticut 

437. Early history. 

1. Similar to organization in Massachusetts towns. 

Hartford chief city of Connecticut Colony 
(1635) and New Haven in New Haven Colony 
(1638). 

2. In 1650 Connecticut Colony laws required town of 

50 families to appoint one to teach children to 
read and write, and town of 100 families to main- 
tain a grammar school. 

3. The New Haven Colony code required masters and 

parents to teach apprentices and other children 
to read and write. 

4. Colonies united in 1665 and the Connecticut laws 

prevailed. In 1690 the legislature voted $300 
yearly to the grammar schools in New Haven 
231 



EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 

and Hartford, and in 1693 $150 to each of the 
grammar schools in New London and Fairfiehl, 
thns providing state aid for the fonr connties. 

5. School supervision provided in 1714. Selectmen 

made visitors and examiners. Law in force until 
1798, when school societies were empowered to 
control the respective schools. 

6. School fund provided from public lands in state in 

1733. State fund secured in 1795 by sale of 
land in Pennsylvania and Ohio ; $1,200,000. 

7. District system in 1766. Parishes and towns di- 

vided; local support and control. 

8. Constitution of 1818 protected school fund, but did 

not contain positive requirements about educa- 
tion. It was a time of apathy in education. In 
1838-9, an investigation resulted in Board of 
Commissioners for common schools, with Henry 
Barnard secretary. He was legislated out of 
office in 1842, but in 1849 he became Superin- 
tendent of Common Schools. 

438. Henry Barnard (1811 to 1900). 

1. Born in Hartford, educated in Hopkins Academy, 

Monson Academy, and Yale, class of 1830. 

2. Studied law and was admitted to the bar. 

3. Taught school; studied social and educational insti- 

tutions in Europe, and wrote Reformatory Edu- 
cation, one of the earliest and most important 
works on juvenile delinquents. 

4. In legislature; formulated bill making State Board 

of Education the basis of the state school system. 

5. Secretary of Board of Commissioners four years. 

232 



HENRY BARNARD 

Notable reforms similar to changes in Massachu- 
setts under Horace Mann. 

a. First teachers' institute in 1839. 

&. Established Connecticut Common School Jour- 
nal. 

c. Secured passage of desirable laws. 

d. "The cold torpidity of the state soon felt the 

sensations of returning vitality." (Horace 
Mann.) 
6. Six years in charge of schools of Rhode Island. 

a. Organized Rhode Island Institute of Instruc- 

tion, the first teachers' association in the 
United States. 

b. Town libraries for the use of schools. 

c. Town lecture courses for teachers. 

d. Traveling model school. Teacher and class went 

from town to town to institutes. 

7. In 1851, Secretary of State Board of Education of 

Connecticut and principal of New Britain Nor- 
mal School. Wrote Normal Schools and School 
Architecture. 

8. In 1855, American Journal of Education founded. 

Edited it twenty-six years and produced 32 vol- 
umes of more than 800 pages each. 

9. In 1867, First United States Commissioner of Edu- 

cation. 
10. He gave America her first literature of education. 
Connecticut Reports. 
Rhode Island Reports. 

United States Commissioner of Education Re- 
ports. 
Connecticut Common School Journal, 4 volumes. 
233 



EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 

Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, 3 vol- 
umes. 
American Journal of Education, 32 volumes. 
52 works on American and European Education. 

439. Institutions. 

1. Four normal schools. Danbury, New Britain, New 

Haven and Willimantic. 

2. Colleges and universities. Yale University at New 

Haven (1701), Trinity College at Hartford, Wes- 
leyan University at Middletown. 

New Jersey 

440. Composite type. 

1. The early period of education in New Jersey com- 

bined the notions of settlers from several nations. 
The first school was established by the Dutch at 
Bergen about 1662, and all the inhabitants were 
required to contribute to the support. 

2. Connecticut emigrants settled the town of Newark 

in 1666 and ten years later a schoolmaster was 
appointed to teach the rudiments and as much 
else as the pupils were capable of assimilating. 

3. In 1689 the English opened a school at Woodridge 

and set apart one hundred acres of land for edu- 
cation. Other early settlements and schools were 
at Perth Amboy, Piscataway, Shrewsbury, ]\Iid- 
dletown and Freehold. 

4. In 1682 the Assembly of West Jersey made a grant 

of 300 acres, the island of Matinicunk in the Dela- 
ware river, for educational purposes. The 
234 



, NEW JERSEY 

Quakers in that section were liberal supporters 
of the school and the church side by side. 

5. In 1693 the East Jersey Assembly at Perth Amboy 

passed an act encouraging town organization of 
schools under three directors chosen under war- 
rant of the justice of the peace. 

6. For fifty years following the union of East Jersey 

and West Jersey in 1702, the educational ad- 
vancement rested upon the personal endeavors 
of a few leaders. Some schools were supported 
by subscription; some private grammar schools 
were opened, among which was William Ten- 
nent's Log College at Nashamany in 1727, an in- 
stitution associated with the history of Princeton 
University. 

7. Colleges and universities. College of New Jersey, 

now Princeton University, in 1716, Rutgers Col- 
lege at New Brunswick in 1766, Seton Hall Col- 
lege at South Orange, St. Benedict's College at 
Newark, St. Peter's College at Jersey City, Up- 
sala College at Kenilworth, St. Elizabeth's Col- 
lege at Convent Station, College of IMount St. 
Mary at Plainfield, and Stevens Institute of Tech- 
nology at Hoboken. 

8. Normal schools. Trenton and IMontclair are state 

schools ; Jersey City, Newark, Paterson and Eliza- 
beth have city normal schools. 

9. Present system is under State Board of Education 

and State Commissioner of Education. County 
supervision with the township or school district. 



235 



EDTTCATTON IN UNITED STATES 

Pennsylvania 

441. Facts. 

1. Perm's Frame of Government^ drawn up in Eng- 

land in 1682, provided for teaching reading, 
writing, and a usefnl trade. 

2. In 1683 Enoch Flower was engaged as schoolmaster 

in Philadelphia. First school in the state. 

3. In 1689 Friends' Public School opened. Similar to 

grammar schools in England. A chartered school 
which became the William Penn Charter School. 

4. In 1692 a school was opened in Darby, and in 1697 

the Society of Friends established a public school 
in Philadelphia free for poor children. 

5. Many private schools and parochial schools under 

different denominations were established, as Ger- 
mantown Academy (1761) and the Moravian 
schools at Nazareth and Bethlehem. Charity 
schools, private schools and church schools con- 
trolled education half a century. The New Eng- 
land colonists in the AVyoming Valley maintained 
schools such as New England had. 

6. State Common School Fund from sale of public 

lands, 1831. Three years later the county was 
made the school division, and each district was 
given directors and inspectors. State appropria- 
tion and local tax supplemented the state fund. 
Full state control under these provisions did not 
become effective until 1873. 

7. Present system under State Board of Education and 

State Superintendent of Public Instruction. 

8. Thirteen normal schools partially under state control. 

236 



PENNSYLVANIA 

All these will ultimately be state normal schools. 
They are at Loch Haven, Clarion, Shippensburg, 
East Stroudsburg, Edinboro, Millersville, In- 
diana, Kutztown, Mansfield, Slippery Kock^ Cali- 
fornia and West Chester. 
9. Colleges and universities. Pennsylvania State Col- 
lege at State College is under state control. There 
are 34 other institutions, as University of Penn- 
sylvania at Philadelphia, Dickinson College at 
Carlisle, Bucknell University at Lewisburg, La- 
fayette College at Easton, Lasalle College at 
Philadelphia, Franklin and Marshall at Lan- 
caster, Girard at Philadelphia, Lehigh University 
at South Bethlehem, Villa Nova, Haverford, 
Swarthmore and Pittsburgh. 

^ 442. Dock's Schulordnung. 

This Plan of Teaching was the first American book 
on pedagogics, by Christopher Dock, a German Men- 
nonite teacher. Written at Germantown, Pa., 1750, and 
published about 1770. 

443. Benjamin Franklin (1706 to 1790). 

1. Influenced thought by services as author, scientist, 

statesman. 

2. His writings are world literature in education, as 

Poor Richard's Almanac and Autohiograpliy. 

3. Pounded first American circulating library (1731), 

the academy that developed into University of 
Pennsylvania, and the American Philosophical 
Society. The purpose of the Philosophical So- 
ciety was to secure cooperation of learned men. 
237 



EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 

4. Two specific writings an education should be con- 
sidered. In one, Proposals relating to the Educa- 
tion of Youth in Pennsylvania (1749), Franklin 
suggested the academy and outlined the essen- 
tials as follows : ' ' Clear and rapid penmanship ; 
something of drawing and perspective; arithme- 
tic, accounts, and some geometry and astronomy ; 
English grammar, pronunciation, and composi- 
tion, taught through oratory and debate and the 
writing of letters, abstracts, and reports; some 
geography ; biography for its moral lessons ; much 
history for its illumination of politics, religion, 
and citizenship, and its incidental incitement to 
the study of ancient and modern foreign lan- 
guages; natural history, with observations, ex- 
cursions, and practical exercises, and finally the 
history of commerce, invention, and manufacture, 
with an introduction to mechanics. The other 
book, A}b Idea of the English School, suggests 
specific methods for teaching the foregoing sub- 
jects, with emphasis upon English language and 
literature, but no Greek and Latin. 

444. Pestalozzian influence. 

1. William McClure visited Yverdon and secured Jo 

seph Neef, Pestalozzi's co-worker at Berne. 

2. Neef taught in Philadelphia twenty years; wrote 

Methods of Teaching; founded Community 
School, New Harmony, Indiana (1826), in which 
he trained teachers. 



238 



MARYLAND 

Maryland 

445. Essential facts. 

1. In 1695 the colonial assembly passed two acts, one 

to encourage learning and the other to petition 
for the erection of free schools. 

2. In 1796 an act was passed favoring the erection of 

free schools for higher grades in each county. 
As a direct result. King William's School was 
founded at Annapolis as a preparatory school for 
AYilliam and Mary College. This plan of one free 
higher school in each county dominated the Mary- 
land school system for a century and a half. 

3. In 1723 a school fund for the regular support of 

the free higher school in each county was begun 
by the import tax on pitch, pork and tar; and 
trustees or visitors were appointed to manage the 
fund and maintain the school for each county. 

4. In 1728 the visitors were required to have the 

schoolmasters for each high school teach as many 
poor pupils free as the visitors directed. By this 
provision of 1728 the county academy was estab- 
lished and the plan of sustaining the charity 
schools for the poor became fixed. 

5. In 1782 the University of jMaryland was provided 

for by the opening of ^Washington College at 
Chestertown, and in 1784 St. John's College at 
Annapolis. 

6. In 1799 the Benevolent Society of the City of Balti- 

more was organized to care for the education of 
the female children of the poor. In 1805 St. 
Peter's School for the poor was opened, and dur- 
239 



EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 

ing the next twenty years many academies and 
other high schools were supported by the aid of 
lottery or other means. 

7. In 1812 a school fund was raised by the tax on 

banks, in 1813 changed to tax on bank stock, and 
later aided by estates of persons dying intestate, 
interest received from United States and income 
from railway stock. In 1816 the first direct tax 
was imposed to support schools for poor children. 

8. In 1826 the first general school law was enacted cov- 

ering supervision, course of study, certification of 
teachers and support of schools. The law was not 
enforced, however^ except in Baltimore. 

9. The State Constitution of 1864 provided a basis 

and the law of 1865 secured an efficient system 
for state education under central supervision. In 
the same year a normal school was established in 
Baltimore. In 1868 the laws were modified to 
satisfy the needs tested by experience under the 
law of 1865. 
10. In 1896 a normal department was organized in 
"Washington College and in 1898 a second normal 
school was opened at Frostburg. A normal school 
for colored teachers was opened in Baltimore in 
1908. 



240 



MARYLAND 

11. Higher institutions. 



INSTITUTION 

Charlotte Hall Acad- 
emy 

Washington College 

St. John's College . . 

Medical Department 
of University of 
Maryland 

Mt. St. Mary's College 

Law School, Universi- 
ty of Maryland .... 

New Windsor College . 

St. Mary's Female 
College 

McDonough Institute 

St. John's Literary 
Institute 

Maryland Institute. . . 

U. S. Naval Academy 

Loyola College 

Kee Mar College 

Maryland College for 
Women 

Rock Hill College 

Maryland Agricultural 
College 

Morgan College 

Western Maryland 
College 

College of Physicians 
and Surgeons 

Johns Hopkins Uni- 
versity 

Baltimore Medical 
College 

Goucher College 

Woman's College .... 



LOCATION 


OPENED 


ChariotteHall 
Chestertown . . 
Annapolis .... 


1774 
1783 
1789 


Baltimore .... 
Emmitsburg . . 


1807 
1808 


Baltimore. . . . 
New Windsor . 


1814 
1843 


St. Mary' City 
La Plata 




Frederick 

Baltimore .... 

Annapolis 

Baltimore .... 
Hagerstown. . . 


i845 
1852 
1852 


Lutherville . . . 
EUicott City . . 


1853 
1857 


College Park . . 
Baltimore .... 


18.59 
1867 


Westminster . . 


1867 


Baltimore .... 


1872 


Baltimore .... 


1876 


Baltimore .... 
Baltimore .... 
Frederick 


1881 
1888 
1893 



CONTROL 


STATE 
AID 




$6,600 
13,275 
14,200 


Nonsectarian 
Nonsectarian 




4,000 


R. C. 


Presbyterian 




6,000 
5,000 






400 
10,000 




Nation 
R. C. 

Nonsectarian 


Lutheran 
R. C. 




State 
M. E. 


15,000 


Meth. Prot. 


15,800 




4,000 


Nonsectarian 


25,000 




4,000 


M. E. 
Reform 



Males 
Both sexes 
Males 



Males 
Males 

Males 
Both sexes 

Women 
Both sexes 

Males 
Both sexes 
Males 
Males 
Women 

Women 
Males 

Males 
Both sexes 

Both sexes 

Males 

Males 

Males 

Women 

Women 



Virginia 

446. Essential facts. 

1. In 1618 it was proposed to establish a college 
with associated preparatory schools, but the Indian mas- 
sacre of 1622 interfered with the project, and nothing 
more was done until the College of William and Mary 
was established in 1693. This college alone represented 
higher education nearly fifty years^ during which time 

241 



EDUCATTON IN UNITED STATES 

lower education was in charge of tutors, clergymen and 
other private endeavors. 

2. In 1749 AVasliington and Lee University at Lex- 
ington had its origin in a Presbyterian academy char- 
tered in 1782 as Liberty Hall. 

3. The third institution of the colonial period was 
Hampden- Sidney College (1783), which had its begin- 
ning in a Presbyterian academy chartered in 1776. 

3. In 1779 Jefferson and Wythe framed a bill for 
the establishment of a school system, but the bill was 
not passed. The first school law was in 1796, but its 
optional character did not secure enforcement. It pro- 
vided for the teaching of reading, writing and common 
arithmetic; a board of three aldermen to erect school, 
appoint teacher, visit and examine schools once in six 
months; support by county tax. The scheme was the- 
oretically sound, but the administration was not well 
carried out. 

4. The second school law was passed in 1818, and it 
provided a charity school system in towns, cities and 
counties. The literary fund, which was started in 1810, 
had increased to a million dollars, and out of this fund 
$45,000 was annually paid for the support of charity 
schools, or free public schools for poor children. In 
1821 colleges, academies and grammar schools began 
sharing the state support. 

5. University of Virginia at Charlottesville chartered 
in 1819 as a result of persistent efforts of Jefferson, 
Madison and other leaders. Opened to students March 
7, 1825. 

6. Virginia Military Institute at Lexington, 1839. 
Modeled after West Point. 

242 



VIRGINIA 

7. The third school law, enacted in 1846, provided for 
boards of commissioners, division of counties into dis- 
tricts, elementary and grammar schools, free to all resi- 
dent white children above the age of six, and support 
by local tax to supplement state aid. These provisions 
were in effect until the Civil War and they are found 
in modified form in the present school system. 

8. Normal schools. Colored students are trained in 
Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute, Hampton 
Normal and Agricultural Institute, or in some of the 
denominational schools for negroes. White students are 
trained in the College of William and ]\Iary, the Vir- 
ginia ]\Iilitary Institute, the State Female Normal 
School, the college at Radford, or in the state normal 
schools at Harrisonburg and Fredericksburg. 

447. Thomas Jefferson (1743 to 1826). 

1. ''Author of Declaration of Independence, of the 
statute of religious freedom, and father of the Uni- 
versity of Virginia." These words are from his epi- 
taph composed by himself. The statute of religious 
freedom was enacted in Virginia in 1776, separating 
Church and State. 

2. Persistently worked for legislation establishing a 
state system of schools, but he was not supported by 
legislators. 

3. Directly responsible for founding and organizing 
the University of Virginia. Assisted by James Madison 
and Joseph C. Cabell. Rector of the University. He 
favored an elective system instead of a prescribed cur- 
riculum, and advocated the development of individual 
responsibility of students in place of rigid discipline. 

243 



EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 

4. Purpose of a state university. 

a. ''To form the statesmen, legislators, and judges, 
on whom public prosperity and individual happiness 
depend. 

h. ''To expound the principles and structure of gov- 
ernment, the laws which regulate the intercourse of na- 
tions, those formed municipally for our own govern- 
ment, and a sound spirit of legislation. 

c. "To harmonize and promote the interests of agri- 
culture, manufactures, and commerce, and by well-in- 
formed views of political economy to give a free scope 
to the public industry. 

d. "To develop the reasoning faculties of our youth, 
enlarge their minds, cultivate their morals, and instill 
in them the precepts of virtue and order. 

e. "To enlighten them with mathematical and physi- 
cal sciences, which advance the arts, and administer to 
the health, the subsistence, and comforts of human 
life." 

448. Cabell. 

Joseph Cabell was graduated from William and Mary 
College, studied in Europe, visited Yverdon, tried to in- 
troduce methods of Pestalozzi in Virginia. Aided Jeffer- 
son in founding the University of Virginia. 

Georgia 

449. Essential facts. 

1. In laying out original towns, land was set aside 
for school purposes. Schools maintained by trustees 
and charitable contributions. 

244 



GEORGIA 

2. In 1754 the crown took control and assured con- 
tinuance of allowance to minister and two schoolmasters. 
This condition remained until the Revolution, and it 
was the only instance of Parliamentary support of 
schools in the colonies. 

3. In 1739 George Whitefield, the evangelist, founded 
an orphan house in imitation of Francke's orphanage 
among the Institutions at Halle. Carpentering, tailor- 
ing, weaving and other trades were taught. Whitefield 
expended $60,000 in developing the orphanage. 

4. Free schools of the county type were planned by 
legislature enactment in 1777, and the first three acad- 
emies Avere chartered in 1783. Each school was given 
an endowment and one thousand acres of land. All the 
academies became a part of the state administrative sys- 
tem under the state university two years later when 
Georgia enacted a statute providing for the first state 
university in this country. The system, excellent as an 
administrative scheme, produced academies for girls and 
boys and also separate schools with courses embracing 
English, Latin, Greek, writing, arithmetic, geography, 
astronomy, mathematics and Roman antiquities. 

5. Private schools and charity schools developed as 
in the other colonies. 

6. Normal and industrial schools are typical institu- 
tions at present. The Georgia State Industrial College 
at Savannah is for negroes; the Georgia Normal and 
Industrial College at Milledgeville is for whites. 

7. Colleges and universities. University of Georgia 
at Athens, Georgia State College of Agriculture and Me- 
chanical Arts at Athens, Georgia School of Technology 
at Atlanta, North Georgia Agricultural College at 

245 



EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 

Dahlonega. The Georgia State Industrial College at 
Savannah is for negroes. 

450. Pedagogical journals. 

1. The Academician was the first, New York, 1820. 

2. Annals of Education, Boston^ 1830. 

3. The Common School Journal of Massachusetts 

(1837) started by Horace Mann. 

4. Common School Journal of Connecticut (1838) 

started by Henry Barnard. 

5. New York District School Journal, edited, by Fran- 

cis D wight, Geneva, 1841. 

6. Barnard's American Journal of Education^ 1855. 

451. Some early text-books. 

1. Dabol's Arithmetic. 

2. Dilworth's Spelling Book. 

3. Webster's Spelling Book. 

4. Hodder's Arithmetic. 

5. Bailey's English and Latin Grammar. 

6. Lindley Murray's Grammar. 

7. Morse's Geography. 

8. Webster's Historical Reader. 

452. Some important dates and events. 

1. 1700, Yale College. 

2. 1704, First American newspaper. 

3. 1709, First daily newspaper. » 

4. 1746, Princeton University. 

5. 1751, Academy of Philadelphia; later became Uni- 

versity of Pennsylvania. 

6. 1754, King's College; now Columbia. 

246 



EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 

7. 1785, Land endowments for public schools in the 

United States. 

8. 1785, Webster's speller. 

9. 1795, Lindiey Murray's English Grammar. 

10. 1802, Congress authorized states formed from 

Northwestern Territory to reserve lands for 
school purposes. 

11. 1806, Neef in Philadelphia. 

12. 1821, First high school (Boston). 

13. 1827, All schools free in Massachusetts. 

14. 1836, Congress distributed among the states $30,- 

000,000, the surplus in the United States treas- 
ury. Used by sixteen states for common schools. 

15. 1837-1849, Horace Mann, Secretary of Massachu- 

setts Board of Education. 

16. 1838, First state normal school in the United 

States. (]\Iassachusetts.) 

17. 1860, First kindergarten in the United States. 

18. 1862, Morrell Land Grant for agricultural and 

technical education. 

19. 1867, United States Commissioner of Education. 

20. 1873, Kindergarten part of public school. (St. 

Louis.) 



247 



Chapter XXVII 
EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 

453. Dates and facts. 

Period of Dutch Control 

Dutch West India Company in control of New 
Netherlands. New Amsterdam was the principal settle- 
ment with a dozen neighboring settlements on western 
Long Island and along the Hudson River. 

1629. First official act by Patroons for support of 
minister and schoolmaster. 

1633. First elementary school in America. This date 
is in dispute, many writers claiming 1638 as the correct 
date. Adam Roelandsen was the first regular school- 
ma,ster, 1633 to 1639. A parochial school under joint 
control of West India Company and the Reformed 
Dutch Church. The Company paid the salaries and 
held principal control while the Church supervised the 
teaching. The schoolmaster, who was usually the reader, 
the leader of the choir, and sometimes the sexton of the 
church, received in addition to his salary tuition fees 
from all pupils excepting the poor, who were admitted 
free. 

1642. Many private schools started. 

1652. A Latin school opened by the Company in New 
Amsterdam, but closed soon. 

248 



EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 

1653. New Amsterdam received city charter which 
placed the school under control of the city governor. 
The continuous existence of this school is claimed, and 
thus it is the foundation of the oldest elementary school 
in America. Parochial schools in neighboring villages 
were supported by the local court and the local church. 
The West India Company did not pay salaries nor 
otherwise hold direct interest. 

1659. First permanent Latin school under joint sup- 
port and control of the Company and the city. Dr. 
Alexander Carolus Curtius was the teacher. Private 
schoolmasters taught Latin and other subjects in New 
Amsterdam from the time of founding the city. Pri- 
vate instructors had to be authorized by the director 
and the council. The subjects in the schools were read- 
ing, writing, some arithmetic, the catechism and prayers. 
Girls and boys attended on equal terms. 

Under Control of England 

After the English secured control, the parochial 
schools of the Dutch continued until the Revolution. 
There was an epoch of lack of interest in public educa- 
tion as the English favored the private school system. 
Teachers were licensed by the governor or the Bishop of 
London. Some charity schools were helped by the city 
and the different churches. 

1702. "An Act for encouragement of a grammar 
free school" provided for the appointment by the gov- 
ernor of a schoolmaster to instruct the male children 
of French, Dutch and English parents. The subjects 
were reading^ writing, English, Latin and Greek. Sup- 

249 



EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 

port of school by taxation. This act was in force until 
1709. 

1732. ''An Act to encourage a public school in the 
City of New York for teaching Latin, Greek and Mathe- 
matics." During nearly quarter of a century prior to 
1732, instruction was carried on by private institutions. 
By the act of 1732 the first Latin school under the Eng- 
lish was a free school supported by the income from 
licenses issued to hawkers and peddlers; supervised by 
the justices of the supreme court, the rector of Trinity 
Church and the city aldermen. Twenty free scholar- 
ships were offered. This act was effective seven years. 
In 1840 the Latin school closed and education again 
passed to private schools. 

1704 to 1775. The Society for the Propagation of the 
Gospel controlled a large part of elementary education 
of the English in the respective villages. First school 
in Rye in 1704 and more than sixty other schools were 
organized during this period. The schools were dis- 
tributed over the territory including Albany. 

1746. ''An Act for raising the sum of £2250 by a 
public lottery for this colony, for the advancement of 
learning and toward the founding of a college within 
the same." This was the origin to the movement which 
led to King's College. 

1754. Charter from King George II establishing 
King's College, whicli became Columbia University. A 
grammar school was maintained in connection with 
the college and instruction in both the grammar 
school and the college was continued until the Revo- 
lution. 

1767. Medical department added to King's College. 

250 



EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 

Under Netv York State 

Education was not considered a state function in the 
early days of the colony, xis in England and in New 
England, education depended upon private organiza- 
tion. 

1784. Regents of the University of the State of New 
York. In January, 1784, the message of Governor 
George Clinton urged immediate attention to education. 
The result was the revival of interest in King's College, 
which had been discontinued as a result of the Revolu- 
tion. The Board of Regents was the Board of Trustees 
in control of King's College, which was revived and re- 
named Columbia, and that institution was the core of 
an educational system including schools and colleges in 
the state. Three years of attention to King's College 
left the other institutions without any development. 

1787. ''An Act to institute a University within this 
state, and for other purposes." All prior acts were re- 
pealed. Columbia College was made independent under 
a Board of Trustees, but the institution was still con- 
sidered a part of the University of the State of New 
York. The Board of Regents of twenty-one members 
was given full power over "all the colleges, academies 
and schools which are or may be established in this 
state. ' ' 

1787. The first two academies, Erasmus Hall and 
Clinton Academy, chartered. 

An act of 1787 provided for secondary and higher 
education, but not for the elementary schools. From 
time to time during ten years the regents directed the 
attention of the legislature to this difficulty, but not 

251 



EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 

until 1795 did the legislature enact measures for the or- 
ganization of the lower schools, and then that organiza- 
tion was made without the authority of the regents. 

1795. The first general school law enacted by New 
York State. It was an experiment to be tested during 
five years only. It provided for an annual appropria- 
tion of £20,000 "for the purpose of encouraging and 
maintaining schools in the several cities and towns in 
this state, in which the children shall be instructed in 
the English language, or be taught English grammar, 
arithmetic, mathematics, and such other branches of 
knowledge as are most useful and necessary to com- 
plete a good English education." The act provided for 
distribution of money, town commissioners and district 
trustees. The teachers had to be certified by town com- 
missioners and here, therefore, was the beginning of 
certification of teachers in this state. The law lapsed 
by limitation in 1800 and the common schools were not 
again organized until 1812. 

1799. Four successive lotteries to raise $100,000, 
$12,500 to be distributed by the Regents among the 
academies and the remainder to be placed in the treas- 
ury for the use of the common schools. In 1801 an- 
other lottery to raise $100,000, one-half of which was 
for the common schools. 

1801. Common school fund for permanent use estab- 
lished by sale of public lands prescribed by act of 1786. 

1802. United States Military Academy at West Point. 
1805. The Public School Society of the City of New 

York chartered to establish free schools in the city ''for 
the education of such poor children as do not belong to 
or are not provided for by any religious society. ' ' This 

252 



EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 

Society began to receive aid from the school fund in 
1812, was aided by city tax in 1831, and continued effi- 
cient service until 1853, having educated more than 
600,000 children. 

1812. The Common School System. By act of the 
legislature, towns were divided into school districts, 
town school commissioners elected, district trustees 
elected, school money distributed according to popula- 
tion in towns and counties, and according to number of 
school children in the districts. Each district required 
to contribute as much money as it received from the 
state, and all state and local money must be used for 
teachers' salaries. This system of common schools Avas 
placed under a new official known as Superintendent of 
Common Schools, not under the Board of Regents. This 
act of 1812 was responsible for the dual system of super- 
vision in this state, a system which continued until 1904. 

1813. Gideon Hawley 'appointed Superintendent of 
Common Schools. 

1817. New York Academy of Science founded. 

Monitorial teaching introduced by Lancaster. Older 
pupils, called monitors, assisted in teaching. In 1805, 
the monitorial or Lancasterian method introduced into 
New York City. Lancaster, himself an English school- 
master, came to New York in 1818, and aided in estab- 
lishing schools in New York, Brooklyn and Philadelphia. 
The services of this system were : 

1. The masses of the people became accustomed to 

schools. 

2. The people became accustomed to support the 

schools. 

3. Education was considered a function of the state. 

253 



EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 

4. A better system of grading. The subjects were 

arithmetic, spelling and reading, and pupils were 
promoted by subjects. 

5. Better organization and better discipline. 
The defects of the system were : 

a. The work was too formal. 
&. Superficial instruction. 

c. Discipline too rigid. 

d. Too much memory work. 
1818. State library established. 

1821. Gideon Hawley, Superintendent of Common 
Schools, removed and office abolished. Secretary of 
State acted as superintendent from 1821 to 1854. 

1823. Brooklyn Academy of Arts and Science 
founded. 

1825. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute founded. 

1830. State convention of teachers at IJtica. 

1834. First teachers' training classes established, one 
in each of the eight judicial districts of the state. 
Academies appointed to give professional instruction, 
and the first class opened in 1835. This was the first 
public provision for professional training of teachers in 
the United States. Appropriation of $500 for books 
and apparatus and $400 for an instructor was made for 
each senatorial district. Such support withdrawn after 
ten years. 

1836. State museum established. 

1837. United States Deposit fund. In 1837 New 
York received $4,014,520.71 from the United States 
Treasury as the state's share of the surplus revenue of 
1836. $110,000 was appropriated immediately for the 
common schools ; $28,000 was to be used by the regents 

254 



EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 

to aid academies; and the balance used to be added to 
the school fund. 

1838. District school libraries started. Movement in- 
fluenced by James Wadsworth (1768 to 1844), Geneseo. 
He was a faithful promoter of the common school. Dis- 
tributed many copies of Hall's Lectures and Cousin's 
Report on European Schools. 

1839. County supervision. County boards of visitors 
without salaries. As a result of their supervision, the 
law of 1841 provided for Deputy Secretary of State 
for schools and deputy superintendent of common 
schools for each county, the latter to be appointed by 
the supervisors of the county. The deputy superintend- 
ents of the counties were empowered to examine and 
certificate teachers and to have, general supervision of 
all the schools in the county^ subject to the state rules 
and regulations. 

1843. Town commissioners and inspectors replaced 
by town superintendents of schools. The name of dep- 
uty superintendent of county changed to county super- 
intendent of schools. The office of county superintend- 
ent was abolished after 1847. First Teachers' Institute, 
Ithaca, under Supt. J. S. Denman. 

1844. First Nonnal School, Albany; David P. Gage, 
Principal. Mr. Page (1810 to 1848) was a teacher in 
New England and a lecturer on education. Associated 
with Horace Mann in developing school spirit and good 
schools. Wrote Theory and Practice of Teaching. 

1845. State Teachers' Association. 

1853. First compulsory school law passed. Vagrant 
children 5 to 14 years of age could be taken before a 
magistrate and their parents compelled to agree in writ- 

255 



EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 

ing to send them to school four months each year until 
the children were fourteen years old. 

1853. Union free school law passed. Any district or 
union of districts could provide a free school, support 
it by taxation, and establish secondary departments. 
The elementary schools were under the supervision of 
state, county and local authorities, but the academic 
departments were under the Regents. The difficulty 
over this dual supervision showed the need of unill ca- 
tion. 

1854. Office of State Superintendent of Education 
restored. 

Victor M. Rice, first Superintendent, 1854. 

Abraham B. Weaver, 1874. 

Neil Gilmore, 1876. 

A. S. Draper, 1886. 

James F. Crooker, 1892. ' 

Charles R. Skinner, 1895. 

1856. Office of school commissioner established, 

1863. Oswego Normal School opened. Edward A. 
Sheldon (1823 to 1897), principal. Exponent of Pes- 
talozzianism ; author of Object Lessons. 

1866. Cortland Normal School opened. James II. 
Hoose, principal. 

1. Principal Cortland Normal School (1869-1891). 

2. Adaptation of Pestalozzi's principles especially in 

primary work. 

3. Professor of Philosophy and Education, University 

of Southern California. 

4. Noted lecturer, organizer, disciplinarian. Compare 

Arnold. 

5. Wrote O71 the Province of Methods of Teaching. 

256 



EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 

1866. Normal Schools at Brockport^ Predonia and 
Potsdam. 

1867. All State schools free ; public support. Normal 
Schools at Buffalo and Geneseo. 

1874. Compulsory Education Law enacted. Age 
limits, eight and fourteen years. 

1885. Normal School at New Paltz. 

1887. Normal School at Oneonta. Uniform system 
of examining teachers adopted by the State Superin- 
tendent. Optional until 1894 and then made manda- 
tory. 

1889. Legislature changed corporate name of 
Board of Regents of the State of New York to Uni- 
versity of State of New York. Normal School at 
Plattsburg. 

School year increased from 28 weeks to 32 weeks. 

Supervision of teachers' training classes in high 
schools and academies transferred from Regents to Su- 
perintendent of Public Instruction. 

1892. Old district library law revised and districts 
required to duplicate state grants. 

1894. Compulsory education law fixing school age 
at 7 to 14 years^ and also 14 to 16 years for all who are 
not regularly employed. 

County institutes changed to district institutes under 
commissioner. 

1896. Consolidation of school districts permitted ; city 
institutes and state summer institutes established. 

1900. New uniform regulations for teachers' certifi- 
cates. All certificates based upon questions used for 
first grade certificate. 

1904. Unification. Board of Regents and Depart- 

257 



EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 

ment of Public consolidated. New office of Commis- 
sioner of Education, Andrew S. Draper in charge. 

Teachers' Information Bureau established in the State 
Department. 

1910. Laws and regulations governing Education De- 
partment made effective by simplification, definite re- 
sponsibility assigned respectively to Board of Regents 
and Commissioner of Education. 

1910. Office of school commissioner abolished and dis- 
trict superintendents substituted. The change effective 
January 1, 1912. 

1911. Teachers' retirement fund law. 

School bond issues permitted by court, and a state 
advisory board permitted to encourage agricultural edu- 
cation and country life advancement. 

1913. School law. 

Chap. 292^ page 5. Establishes five state scholarships 
annually in each of 150 assembly districts of state. 
Holder of scholarship entitled to $100 for each year 
in attendance at an approved college during four years. 
Awarded in order of merit. 

Chap. 129, page 9. Consolidation of school districts 
by vote of electors of districts to be consolidated. 
Applied to both common and union free school dis- 
tricts. 

Chap. 176, page 14. Establishment and maintenance 
of temporary schools outside of cities and union free 
school districts, in camps, etc., by district superintend- 
ent, subject to approval of commissioner of education. 
Quota $125. Cost and expenses paid by state or mu- 
nicipality and not by district. 

Chap. 440, page 16. Annual school meeting in union 

258 



EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 

free school districts of 300 or more children may be 
held on first Tuesday in August at 7.30 p. m. 

Chap. 221, page 18. Acquisition of site for play 
grounds, athletic center and social center purposes, ^tc, 
and for the giving instruction in agriculture, and also 
extending the use of school buildings for library pur- 
poses, social or civic meetings, etc. 

Chap. 511, page 24. Extending number of school 
weeks from 32 to 36 (180 days). The term in common 
school districts to begin first Tuesday in September. 
Six days may be allowed for conferences with compensa- 
tion. 

Sec. 3, page 24. Child between 8 and 14 residing else- 
where than in city or school district of 5,000 population, 
and employing a superintendent of schools, shall attend 
upon instruction during entire time school is in session. 
BetAveen 14 and 16, attend if not employed. 

Sec. 1100, page 25. The word ''teacher" includes 
teachers, principals and superintendents when referring 
to ' ' teachers ' retirement fund. ' ' 

Sec. 1108, page 25. Teacher to contribute 1 per 
centum of salary annually to teachers' retirement fund. 
Amount due fund to be deducted from each warrant or 
order. Counties and cities in which provision is already 
made for pensions are excepted. 

Chap. 627, page 27. ^ledical inspection of all pupils 
in public schools. Pupils to furnish health certificates. 

Chap. 747, page 32. General industrial, trade, agri- 
cultural, part-time or continuation schools, etc., and 
evening vocational schools may be established in cities 
and union free school districts. State will pay two- 
thirds of salary paid to teacher. 

259 



EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 

Chap. 748, page 36. Compulsory school attendance 
between 14 and 16 in part-time or continuation schools 
evenings for not less than 6 hours each week for not 
less than 16 weeks in one year. 

Chap. 101, page 39. School record certificate. At- 
tendance not less than 130 days, read and write English 
language, instruction in six required subjects, completed 
first six years ' elementary school work. Date, birth and 
residence of child and name of child's parents, guard- 
ians or custodians. 

Chap. 175, page 44. A blind or a deaf person in at- 
tendance at a college, university, technical or profes- 
sional school shall be paid $300 per annum to employ 
persons to read or to aid such student in receiving in- 
struction. 

Chap. 424, page 46. Division of Public Records and 
the Division of History in the Education Department 
created. 

1914. School law. 

Chap. 154, page 6. Authorizes a district superintend- 
ent to alter the boundaries of any school district within 
his jurisdiction, with consent of trustees. 

Chap. 101, page 6. Two-thirds of qualified electors 
of each of two or more districts in which there shall be 
less than 15 electors, or, if there be 15 or more, ten of 
such electors shall sign a request for a meeting to con- 
solidate. Trustees to call meeting. 

Chap. 55, page 8. Commissioner of Education au- 
thorized to lay out in any territory, exclusive of a city, 
school districts conveniently located for attendance of 
scholars and of suitable size for establishment of ''Cen- 
tral Rural Schools" to give instruction usually given 

260 



EDTTCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 

in common schools and at high schools, including in- 
struction in agriculture. Any central district shall have 
same powers now conferred upon union free school dis- 
tricts. "State aid. Transportation of scholars. 

Chap. 216, page 12. Districts may vote tax not ex- 
ceeding $25 in any one year for the purchase of maps, 
globes, reproductions of standard works of art, black- 
boards, and other school apparatus and for the purchase 
of text-books and other school necessaries for the use 
of poor scholars of the district. 

Trustees may expend $25 for articles mentioned 
above, or for conducting athletic playgrounds and social 
center activities, in one year^ without a vote of the dis- 
trict. 

Chap. 44, page 18. Establishment of State Teachers' 
Eetirement Fund. 

Sec. 1108, page 19. All teachers to contribute 1 per 
centum of the salary. District superintendents to con- 
tribute 1 per centum of salary. Teachers' contract. All 
school districts and cities shall contribute an amount 
equal to that contributed by the teachers, to be de- 
ducted from the public moneys. 

Sec. 1109, p. 22. Retirement of teachers. A teacher 
who has taught 25 years^ of which period at least the 
last 15 years in this state, shall, upon his retirement be 
entitled to an annuity of a sum equal to one-half of the 
average annual salary for the period of five years prior 
to retirement. No annuity to exceed $600. (2) A teacher 
who has taught 15 years, at least 9 in this state, and 
who is either physically or mentally incapable of teach- 
ing, may be retired, and be entitled to an annuity of 
as many twenty-fifths of the full annuity for 25 years 

261 



EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 

as said teacher has taught. (3) Retirement may be 
made on the request of the teacher or of the board of 
education in a city or union free school district. Re- 
quest for retirement made to State Teachers ' Retirement 
Fund Board, Albany, N. Y. 

Sec. 1109 a. A teacher is not entitled to an annuity 
unless he has contributed to retirement fund an amount 
equal to at least 50 per centum of his annuity. He may 
become an annuitant by making cash payment which 
when added to his previous contributions will equal 50 
per centum of his annuity. 

Chap. 21, p. 28. Upon obtaining a permit and badge 
a male child over 12 years, between the close of school 
and 6.30 p. m., and a male child over 14, between 5.30 
and 8.00 a. m., may be employed to carry and distribute 
newspapers. 

Chap. 318, p. 30. Physicians^ teachers and others to 
report in writing to the health officer the name and ad- 
dress of any person who appears to be suffering from 
tuberculosis. 

454. Sources of support of education. 

1. The common school fund. Act of 1805 made use of 

500,000 acres of unappropriated land in this state. 
Approximate value, $4,000,000; annual income, 
about $170,000. 

2. United States Deposit fund. In 1836, under Presi- 

dent Jackson, the surplus in the United States 
treasury was distributed among the states. This 
state received four million dollars. 

3. The Free School Fund. Secured by state taxes. First 

levy in 1851. 

262 



EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 

4. Gospel and School Lands Fund. In 1784 three hun- 
dred acres of unappropriated lands in each town- 
ship were set apart for the use of a minister of 
the gospel, and 690 acres for the public schools. 
An act of 1786 provided that these lots should 
contain 640 acres, and an act of 1789, 250 acres 
each. These lots have since been rented or sold 
and the proceeds used for the benefit of the pub- 
lic schools. In 1786 unappropriated lands of the 
state were sold by the Board of Commissioners 
of the Land Office and the proceeds used for a 
literature fund. By various subsequent acts, the 
revenue derived from the sale of lands and from 
the United States Deposit Fund in 1836 has been 
added to this fund. About a quarter of a million 
dollars from the literature fund has been dis- 
tributed by the Regents for the maintenance of 
schools. 

455. Means for professional training of teachers. 

1. Normal schools and college. 
State Normal College at Albany. 

Brockport New Paltz 

Buffalo Oneonta 

Cortland Oswego 

Fredonia Plattsburg 

Geneseo Potsdam 

2. Pedagogical departments in colleges and universities. 

3. Teachers' training classes. 

4. Summer training schools. 



263 



EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 
456. Colleges and universities. 



Name 


Location 


Opened 


Control 


For 


Columbia University 

Union University 


New York City . . 
Schenectady .... 

CUnton 

Hamilton 


1754 
1795 
1812 
1819 
1822 

1824 
1832 
1836 
1841 
1847 

1849 
1850 
1854 
1855 
1856 
1858 
1859 
1859 
1860 
1863 
1865 
1868 
1868 
1870 
1871 
1889 
1890 
1896 

1896 
1904 

1910 


Nonsectarian 
Nonsectarian 
Nonsectarian 
Nonsectarian 
Nonsectarian 

Nonsectarian 
Nonsectarian 
Nonsectarian 
R. C. 
R. C. 

City 

Baptist 

Nonsectarian 

Presbyterian 

R. C. 

Univ. 

R. C. 

R. C. 

P. E. 

R. C. 

Nonsectarian 

Nonsectarian 

Nonsectarian 

R. C. 

Methodist 

Nonsectarian 

Free Baptist 

Nonsectarian 

Nonsectarian 
R. C. 

R. C. 


Both Sexes 

Men 

Men 


Colgate University 


Men 
Men 


Rensselaer Polytechnic In- 
stitute 


Troy 


Men 


New York University 

Alfred University 


New York City . 
Alfred 


Both Sexes 
Both Sexes 


Fordham University 

St. Francis Xavier College . 

College of the City of New 

York 


New York City- 
New York City . 

New York City . . 

Rochester 

Brooklyn 

Elmira 


Men 
Men 

Men 


University of Rochester . . . 

Polytechnic Institute 

Elmira College 


Both Sexes 

Men 

Women 


Niagara University 


Niagara 


Men 
Both Sexes 


St. Francis College 

St. Bonaventure's College . 

St. Stephen's College 

Manhattan College 

Vassar College 


Brooklyn 

St. Bonaventure. 

Annandale 

New York City . . 
Poughkeepsie . . . 


Men 
Men 
Men 
Men 
Women 


Wells College 


Women 


Cornell University 

Canisius College 


Ithaca 


Both Sexes 


Buffalo 


Men 


Syracuse University 

Barnard College 


Syracuse 

New York City . . 

Keuka Park 

Brooklyn 

Potsdam 

New Rochelle . . . 

Mt. St. Vincent . 


Both Sexes 
Women 


Keuka College 


Both Sexes 


Adelphi College 


Both Sexes 


Clarkson School of Tech- 
nology 


Men 


College of New Rochelle . . . 
College of Mount St. Vin- 


Women 
Women 







264 



Chapter XXVIII 
EUEOPEAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS 

7. Germany 

457. Organization. 

1. Each German state independent. Minister of Public 

Instruction over all. The Prussian school system 
is among the best in the world. 

2. Three characteristics — state control, compulsory, uni- 

versal. 

458. Attendance. 

1. Compulsory, 6-14, every school day. 

2. Parents may be fined for absence of children. 

3. Six days a week for forty-two weeks. Hours, 8-11 

and 2-4; Wednesday and Saturday afternoons 
free. 

459. Schools. 

1. Kindergartens. 

2. Public elementary schools (Yolkschulen). 

3. Secondary schools. 

a. Gymnasium. Classical school leading to univer- 
sity. Course, 9 years. 

h. Realgymnasium. Combination of classical and 
scientific, known as Latin-scientific. Course, 9 
years. 

266 



GERMANY 

c. Oberrealschule. Course of 9 years in subjects 

not considered classical. 

d. Realschule. Modern languages, sciences, mathe- 

matics and other subjects in distinction to 
those in classical schools. Course, 6 years. 

e. Modern language school for girls. Course, 9 

years. 
/. Classical school for girls. Course, 5 to 6 years. 
4. Normal schools and elementary school seminaries to 
prepare for elementary school teaching; gym- 
nasial seminaries and university seminaries to 
prepare for secondary teaching and higher teach- 
ing. 
.5. Continuation schools for instruction in trades, agri- 
culture and other lines of industrial life. 

460. Support. 

State and local taxes, endowments. 

461. Teachers. 

1. Normal graduates for common schools. 

2. University men for higher work. 

3. Temporary appointment for 3 years. 

4. Life tenure after probation. 

5. Increasing salaries ; pensions. 

II. France 

462. Organisation. 

1. Minister of education. 

2. Divisions and subdivisions, each under otficer and 

council. 

267 



EUROPEAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS 

463. Attendance. 

Compulsory, 6-13. 

464. Schools. 

1. Infant or mother school, 2-6. 

2. Lower primary, 6-13. 

3. Higher primary. 

4. High schools. 

5. Normal schools, higher and lower. 

465. Support. 

State and local. All are free. 

466. Teachers. 

Nearly all normal graduates. 

467. Summary. 

1. Excellent system. 

2. Professionally trained teachers. 

3. Compulsory attendance. 

III. England 

468. Organization. 

1. Public education law in 1870. 

2. Education Department established in 1900. 

469. Attendance. 

Compulsory between 5 and 14 years of age. 

470. Schools. 

1. Infant schools, 3 to 7. 

268 



ENGLAND 

2. Elementary schools, above 7 years. Classed as free 

schools, but not entirely so. Church schools 
known as voluntary schools and supported by 
subscriptions or vested funds. Board schools 
supervised by local boards and supported by state 
grants and local taxation. 

3. Technical schools to prepare for vocational or indus- 

trial service. Conducted by Science and Art De- 
partment, by cities, by colleges, by guilds or pri- 
vate associations. 

4. Public and private high schools. 

5. Teachers' training colleges. There are seventeen col- 

leges for men, twenty-five for women, and one for 
both sexes. 

6. Colleges and universities. 

471. Support. 

State and local taxes, tuition, endowments, private 
subscription. 

472. Teachers. 

Monitors, as under Bell and Lancaster, begin teach- 
ing, and later take professional training; salaries fair; 
no pension. 

IV. Other Countries 

473. Attendance. 

Compulsory except in Russia. 



269 



Chapter XXXIX 
PEDAGfOGICAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 

474. Formative stage. 

Uniform development of the professional training of 
teachers cannot be shown, but the trend can be indi- 
cated by leading events. Students should observe that 
this department of educational effort is still in the 
formative stage. 

475. Jesuits (1540). 

INIembers of the order were carefully trained for teach- 
ing. The training included theory supplemented by 
teaching under supervision. 

476. Christian Brothers. 

First normal school for members of the order was 
opened at Rheims in 1685. Called Seminary for School- 
masters. Other normal schools included schools of prac- 
tice as well as departments of theory. 

477. Francke (1692 to 1707). 

The Institutions at Halle included a pedagogium, or 
school for the training of prospective teachers. 

478. Monitorial system. 

A system in which pupils are employed as assistants 
in teaching. Associated with Andrew Bell and Joseph 
Lancaster. 

270 



PEDAGOGICAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 

Andrew Bell (1753 to 1832), born in Scotland, edu- 
cated at University of St. Andrew, tutored in Virginia, 
chaplain and superintendent of Military Male Orphan 
Asylum in Madras, India. He learned the monitorial 
system from Hindu teachers and immediately (1791) 
put it into practice. Principal application by pupil- 
teachers was in writing on tables of sand. Bell devel- 
oped the system in England and introduced it into Ire- 
land and Canada. 

Joseph Lancaster (1778 to 1838) was an exponent of 
the monitorial system in England, South America and 
United States. He used sand tables and introduced 
wall charts for reading. He advocated small classes, 
training of teachers by observation and practice, and 
management under the maxim, ''Let every child at 
every moment have something to do and a motive for 
doing it.'' 

While the professional training of teachers under the 
monitorial system was inadequate, it was habituation 
under organized procedure. 

479. Public opinion. 

National ideas produced a type for consideration in 
France, Germany and Austria. The actual opening of 
normal schools directed public attention to the necessity 
of having trained teachers. 

480. Influence of writings. 

The literature of modern education furnished definite 
ideals for rejection, modification or acceptance. Co- 
menius produced books on theory of teaching, methods 
of teaching, and school organization. Rousseau, Pes- 
talozzi, Froebel and Rosmini contributed to new concep- 

271 



PEDAGOGICAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 

tions of education by theory, applications in teaching, 
and psychological classification. 

]\Iann, l^age and Barnard made definite advancement 
in organization in America by combining principles of 
education, methods of teaching, school administration, 
and public enlightenment by means of extensive writ- 
ings. 

481. Germany. 

1735. Frederick William of Prussia established first 
state seminary at Stettin. 

1738. University of Gottingen opened pedagogical 
seminary. Similar plan soon adapted by other univer- 
sities. 

1748. Hecker's Teachers' Seminary in Berlin. 

1763. State teachers' examinations in some subjects. 
In a period of thirty years fourteen pedagogical semi- 
naries were established. They were distributed over 
nearly all the states and supported wholly or in part by 
the respective states. 

1807. Law requiring state examination teachers. 

1809. Herbart at University of Konigsberg instituted 
scientific study of education resulting in psychology of 
education. Stimulus to other institutions. 

1810. Full control of examination of teachers. State 
authority substituted for local authority. 

1831. Normal schools established. 

1874. First state examination for women teachers. 

1890. Training course lengthened one year for train- 
ing prior to the first year of experience in teaching. 

1901. Graduates of secondary schools granted unre- 
stricted admission to teachers' examinations. 

272 



PEDAGOGICAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 

482. France. 

1794. Law providing for first normal school at Paris. 

1808. Normal school for teachers of secondary 
schools. 

1814. During the next fifteen years twelve normal 
schools for teachers of elementary schools. 

1833. Every department was required to have a 
normal school by itself or in union with one or more 
other departments. This requirement resulted in the 
opening of forty-seven primary normal schools. Dur- 
ing three years following 1860 seven more normal schools 
were established. 

1867. A period of reorganization. Courses of study 
revised and enlarged, the study of agriculture being re- 
quired; salaries increased and graded. 

1880. First higher normal schools to train girls for 
teaching in secondary schools. This was followed by the 
establishment of two normal schools for the use respec- 
tively of men and women preparing to teach the higher 
primary schools. 

1886. Two normal schools required for every depart- 
ment, one for men and the other for women. 

1889. Law requiring all teachers to be lay teach- 
ers. 

1903. The Higher Normal School affiliated with Uni- 
versity of Paris. Degree at graduation valid for teach- 
ing in secondary schools. 

483. Austria. 

1771. Normal school having practise department to 
supplement theory. Type similar to American normal 
schools. 

273 



PEDAGOGICAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 

484. Great Britain. 

1581. Mulcaster advocated departments of pedagogy 
in universities. 

Monitorial systems of Lancaster and Bell early in 
nineteenth century. Theory fundamentally the same in 
both systems. The older and brighter boys were trained 
to become teachers. Lancaster had the support of the 
Quakers and Bell had the support of the Church of 
England. 

1833. Government grants for education. The sum of 
£10,000 was voted for the erection of model schools in 
1835, but the money was not used for that purpose un- 
til 1839. 

Pupil-teacher system introduced about 1840 by Kay 
Shuttleworth from Holland. Similar to monitorial sys- 
tem, but the pupil-teacher was apprenticed for five years 
to a head teacher. The pupil-teacher received a small 
salary. Special attention was given to professional 
training, while academic instruction was reserved for 
the training college, which was entered at the close of 
the period of apprenticeship. In 1846 the Queen's Schol- 
arships were granted to help support pupil-teachers in 
the training college. 

1874. Pupil-teacher center system. Introduced to 
assure better academic preparation. Age of pupil- 
teachers raised from thirteen to fourteen in 1878 and 
later to fifteen and sixteen. Apprenticeship period di- 
minished from five years to two years. 

1890. Day training colleges. Pedagogical train- 
ing in connection with university organization. The 
latest development is organization of day training 
colleges under control of city or county authority. 

274 



PEDAGOGICAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 

The time in the training college is one, two, three or 
four years. 

1905. Student-teacher system. Secondary education 
first, then one year of practice teaching in elementary 
work under supervision, and then the training college. 

485. United States. 
Five stages are found. 

1. The academy as a training school. 

2. The normal schools. 

3. City training schools. 

4. High school normal training classes. 

5. Departments of pedagogy in colleges and universi- 
ties. 

1. Training Glasses in Academies 

1756. The Academy and Charitable School of Phila- 
delphia was proposed in 1743 and organized in 1756 
under the influence of Benjamin Franklin. The aim 
was 'Hhat others of the lesser sort might be trained as 
teachers." Most of the training was in subject-matter 
rather than in theory of teaching. 

Phillips Andover Academy in Massachusetts sought to 
prepare teachers for the common schools about the mid- 
dle of the nineteenth century. 

There was rivalry between the academies and the mon- 
itorial high schools in New York State when sentiment 
favored the professional training of teachers. The acad- 
emies won because they had had state support since 
1813. In 1834 courses of instruction were organized. 
It is said that the law of 1834 was the first in United 
States for training of teachers for the common schools 

275 



PEDAGOGICAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 

2. The Normal Schools 

1845. First normal school in New York State at Al- 
bany under Principal David P. Page. 

Eminent educators had written in favor of normal 
school training. Among them were William E. Russell 
in 1823 and Professor Kingsley of Yale in the same 
year; Walter R. Johnson of Pennsylvania and Thomas 
H. Gallaudet in 1825. 

1823. Samuel R. Hall opened a private school for the 
training of teachers in Concord^ Vermont, and the work 
was continued into 1830. In 1829 Hall's Lectures on 
School Keeping were published and widely circulated. 

In 1830 Mr. Hall continued his work in Andover, 
Mass., and from 1837 to 1840 in Plymouth. 

1826. Neef opened training school in New Harmony, 
Indiana. 

1827. James G. Carter, known as a ''Father of Nor- 
mal Schools," opened a training school for teachers in 
Lancaster, Mass. Elected to the legislature in 1835, Mr. 
Carter urged the establishment of training schools for 
teachers. He was aided by Charles Brooks, who had 
written on the Prussian educational sj^stem, and also by 
Edmund Dwight, who contributed $10,000 toward the 
project. 

1839. First public normal school in America was 
opened July 3 at Lexington, IMass., for women, under 
the principalship of Rev. Cyrus Pierce. This school 
afterwards became the Framingham Normal School. 
Another school was opened at Barre for both sexes and 
later became Westfield Normal School. 

Barnard's work in Connecticut kept the subject be- 

276 



PEDAGOGICAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 

fore the people twenty-five years and ended in the estab- 
lishment of the New Britain Normal School in 1849. 

1848. Philadelphia Normal School. 

1850. Ypsilanti Normal School. 

1855. Trenton Normal School. 

3. City Training Schools 

Private normal schools developed and increased rap- 
idly. During the second quarter of the nineteenth cen- 
tury the city training schools, a type of smaller normal 
school and the direct outgrowth of the monitorial school 
plan of Lancaster, were organized. Such schools estab- 
lished in Philadelphia in 1848 became the Girls' Normal 
School; in 1852 Boston; in 1867 New^ York City, the 
school later becoming Normal College for Girls; in 1861 
Oswego City Training School, which became the Oswego 
Normal School in 1866. 

4. High School Normal Training Classes 

Intended to give limited professional training rather 
than to serve as substitutes for normal schools. Gradu- 
ates fitted for rural schools. Many of the graduates pur- 
sued subsequent courses in normal school. This type of 
training is the outgrow^th of the original work of the 
academies in preparing teachers for service. Similar 
schools are found in AVisconsin, Nebraska, Indiana^ and 
Virginia. 

5. Departments of Pedagogy in Colleges and 
TJniversities 

Began with an agitation for the establishment of such 
departments in Amherst College in 1826. Actual open- 

277 



PEDAGOGICAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 

ing of department in Washington College in 1831 and 
in any New York nniversity in 1832. Plan has devel- 
oped into effectual service in all parts of the United 
States. 

In this connection, New York State Normal College 
at Albany and Teachers College, connected with Co- 
lumbia, deserve special mention as distinctive institu- 
tions. The former was organized as a college in 1891; 
the latter, in 1888. 



278 



Chapter XXX . 

ECLECTIC CONCEPTION OF EDUCATION 

486. Using inheritances. 

The opening paragraphs of this book direct attention 
to composite or eclectic definitions of education. Now 
we have clearer reasons for seeing why modern educa- 
tion is making use of the desirable elements in all prior 
work in education. 

The eclectic notion of education embodies three large 
conceptions formulated during the period of modern 
education. The psychological conception is represented 
by Herbart, Pestalozzi and Froebel; the scientific con- 
ception, by Herbert Spencer, Thomas Huxley and other 
scientists; the sociological conception, by John Dewey 
and nearly all the other recognized educators. The 
three conceptions are the cumulative result of develop- 
ment through all the periods in the history of educa- 
tion. 

The comprehensive scope of aim and the composite 
nature of effort can be more easily grasped when we 
consider how the specific needs of modern life are met. 
School administration recognizes the inheritances of the 
culture products of civilization — scientific, literary, es- 
thetic, institutional, industrial and religious; makes 
use of the five factors in education — home, school, 

280 



ECLECTIC CONCEPTION OF EDUCATION 

church, state and vocation; and seeks to aid the un- 
fortunate and the defective — the blind, the lame, the 
abnormal, the orphan, and those in penal institutions. 
Industrial education, a new phase of school organiza- 
tion, illustrates the breadth of theory and practice. 
Agriculture, commerce, manual training, technical trades 
and vocational aptitudes are thoroughly covered. The 
cooperation of agencies is made efficient as shown in the 
following outline, and the belief that education is a life 
process is evidenced by extension work in evening 
schools, vacation schools, free lectures, and organizations 
for community welfare. 

487. Cooperation of factors in education. 

1. The school and the home. 

a. Visits by teachers and nurses. 

b. Parents' meetings. 

c. Improvement societies. 

d. School exhibitions. 

e. Rhetorical exercises. 
/. Pupils' report cards. 
g. Graduation exercises. 

2. The school and the church. — Lines of effort parallel 

Avitli those in, the school and the home. 

3. The school and the state. 

a. Obedience to law. 
h. Respect for authority. 
c. Desire to cooperate. 

4. The school and the library. 

a. Literature and character. 
h. Desire for self-improvement. 
c. Substitution in habit : reading vs. idleness. 
281 



ECLECTIC CONCEPTION OF EDUCATION 

5. The school and the museum. 

a. Visualization. 

h. Eecorded observation, a means of causing reac- 
tions. Notes on observations put into com- 
position form. 

c. Collecting impulse stimulated and guided. 

d. Esthetic influence. 

6. The school and the newspaper. 

a. The support of the press needed. 
&. Current history a vitalizing force, 
c. School papers as means of expression. 

7. The school and industry. 

a. Excursions to factories. 

h. Study of commercial geography. 

c. Arithmetic applied to lumbering, excavating, 

milk depots, etc. 

d. Correlation with life. Study of materials used 

in food, clothing, houses, manufactures in gen- 
eral. 



282 



Chapter XXXI 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 

488. Correlation. 

This table may be used to associate history of educa- 
tion with the leading events in general history. 

Chronological Table 

1000-900 (?) B. C. Settlement of coast of Asia Minor 

by ^olians, lonians and Dorians. 
1000 ( ?) B. C. Homer and his successors. 
820 (?) B. C. Constitution and laws of Lycurgus of 

Sparta. 
776. First Olympiad. Coroibus the first victor in 

Olympian games. 
594 B. C. Solon, lawgiver of Athens. 
490 B. C. Battle of Marathon. 
444-429 B. C. Athens under administration of Pericles. 

The Age of Pericles was 465-429 B. C. 
525 to 406 B. C. The tragic dramatists: ^schylus, 

Sophocles, Euripides. 
470 to 390 B. C. The noted historians: Herodotus, 

Xenophon, Thucydides. 
469 to 399 B. C. Socrates. 
427 to 348 B. C. Plato. 
384 to 322 B. C. Aristotle. 

284 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 

336-323 B. C. Alexander subdued Greece. 

146 B. C. Greece subject to Rome. 

106 to 43 B. C. Cicero interpreted Greek philosophy 
for Romans. 

70 to 18 B. C. The Roman poets : Vergil, Horace, Ovid. 

35 to 95 A. D. Quintilian : Institutes of Oratory. 

50 to 138. Plutarch. Parallel Lives. 

181. Catechetical School of Pant^nus, Alexandria. 

Middle of third century. Paul, the first Egyptian her- 
mit. 

320. Monastic Community of Pachomius. 

Fourth century. Cathedral Schools with Trivium. 

404. Cassian's Monastery at Marseilles. 

476. Fall of Rome. 

529. Benedict's Monastery at Monte Casino. 

563. St. Columba settled on lona^ near Scotland. 

714. Arab conquest of Spain. 

Eighth century. Chrodegang's organization of Ca- 
thedral Schools. 

782. Alcuin summoned to Charlemagne's court. 

Ninth and tenth centuries. Mohammedan schools in 
Spain. 

1079 to 1142. Abelard at University of Paris. 

1200 to 1386. Universities of Paris, Naples, Vienna, 
Heidelberg. 

1221 to 1274. Thomas Aquinas. 

1214 to 1294. Roger Bacon. 

1265 to 1375. Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio. 

1383. Gerhard Groot founded Brethren of the Com- 
mon Life. 

1395. Chrysoloras began to teach Greek at Florence. 

1453. Constantinople captured by Turks. 

285 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 

1467 to 1536. Erasmus: Grammars, Dictionaries, and 
Translations from Latin and Greek; first printed 
Greek New Testament. 

About 1470. Wessel, Agricola, and Reuchlin studied 
Greek at Paris. 

1483 to 1553. Rabelais and realism. 

1492. Grocyn began to teach Greek at Oxford. 

1506. Reuchlin published Hebrew Grammar. 

1512. Dean Colet founded St. Paul's Grammar School. 

1516. Erasmus published Greek New Testament. 

1528. Melanchthon 's Saxony School Plan. 

1538. Sturm's Strasburg Gymnasium. 

1540. Loyola founded Society of Jesus. 

1570. Ascham's Scholemaster published. 

1580 ahd 1588. Montaigne's Essays published. 

1580 to 1605. Francis Bacon : Inductive Philosophy. 

1619. Ratich opened school at Anhalt-Kothen and, in 
1620, formulated maxims for teaching lan- 
guages. 

1627 to 1657. Books by Comenius. 

1643. Port Royalists opened the Little Schools. 

1679. La Salle opened a school for boys at Rheims. 

1683. La Salle founded Brothers of the Christian 
Schools. 

1687. Fenelon published The Education of Girls. 

1692. Locke published Thoughts on Education. 

1695. Francke began his Institutions at Halle. 

1707. Francke formed teachers' seminary. 

1701. Yale LTniversity founded. 

1724. Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences founded. 

1726-28. Rollin's Treatise on Studies published. 

1735. Teachers' Seminary founded at Stettin. 

286 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 

1738. Pedagogical Seminary established in Gottingen 
Lhiiversity. 

1746. Princeton University founded. 

1747. Hecker's Real School opened in Berlin. 

1748. Hecker's Teachers' Seminary opened. 

1749. University of Pennsylvania founded. 
1754. Columbia University founded. 
1762. Rousseau's Eniile published. 

1770 to 1841. Jacotot. 

1771. Normal School established in Vienna. 

1774. Philanthropin opened by Basedow at Dessau. 

1775. American Revolution began. 
1776 to 1841. Herbart. 

1782 to 1852. Froebel : Kindergarten. 

1785. United States Government set aside public land 

for schools. 
1787. United States Government set aside public land 

for universities. 
1789. French Revolution begun. 
1795. New York appropriated one hundred thousand 

dollars to aid schools. 

1795 to 1842. Thomas Arnold : Rugby. 

1796 to 1859. Horace Mann. 

1798. Lancaster opened a monitorial school in London. 

1802. AYest Point ^lilitary Academy established. 

1805. Pestalozzi's school at Yverdon opened, 

1806. University of France established. 

1808. Emma Hart's Seminary for ladies at Middle- 
burg, Vermont, opened. 

1809. Herbart made professor at Konigsberg. 
1811 to 1900. Henry Barnard. 

1812. State superintendency established in New York. 

287 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 

1812-15. War between United States and England. 

1815. Napoleonic wars ended. 

1815. Connecticut asylum for deaf and dumb estab- 
lished. 

1820 to 1903. Herbert Spencer. 

1821. First real high school in the United States 
opened in Boston. 

1824. Elective system begun at Harvard. 

1824. Rensselaer technical school established. 

1826. Neef 's training school in Indiana. 

1831. Education nationalized in Ireland. 

1832. Massachusetts institution for the blind opened. 

1833. Oberlin College opened as a coeducational insti- 
tution. 

1834. State free-school law enacted in Pennsylvania. 

1836. Mount Holyoke College founded. 

1837. Kindergarten opened at Blankenburg by Froebel. 
1839. Normal school opened at Lexington, Massachu- 
setts. 

1848 to 1913. Andrew S. Draper. 

1850. S. S. Green made professor of didactics in Brown 
University. 

1855. First Kindergarten opened in the United States 
by Mrs. Schurz. 

1860. Publication of Spencer's Education. 

1862. National land appropriations made for agricul- 
tural colleges. 

1867. United States Bureau of Education established. 

1870. Education nationalized in England. 

1873. University extension movement begun. 

1877. Education made compulsory in Italy. 

1882. Education made compulsory in France. 

288 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 

1888. Teachers College, Columbia University. 
1890. School of Pedagogy, New York University. 
1899. National Board of Education established in Eng- 
land. 
1901. School of Education, Chicago University. 
1903. Higher Normal School in France. 



289 



Chapter XXXII 

PRONUNCIATION OF NAMES.— REFERENCES 
FOR COLLATERAL STUDY 



489. Pronunciation. 

A 

Abelard, ab'e-lard. 
Agricola, a-grik'o-la. 
Alcuin, arkwin. 
Anselm, an'selm. 
Aquinas, a-kwi'nas. 
Aristotle, ar'is-tot-L 
AscHAM, as'kam. 
Augustine, aw'gus-tln. 

B 

Basedow, ba'zeh-do. 
Basil, ba'siL 
Boccaccio, bok-kat'cho. 
Buddha, bood'da. 
BuRGDORF, boorg'dorf. 

C 

Celestine, seris-tm. 
Charlemagne, shar'le- 
man. 



Chrysostom, kris'os-tom 

or kris-os'tom. 
Cicero, cic'e-ro. 
Clement, klem'ent. 
Colloquy, corio-quy. 
CoMENius, ko-ma'nee-oos. 
Confucius, kon-fu'she-us. 
CoNSTANTiNE, kon'stan-tln. 

D 

Dante, dan'te. 
Demosthenes, de-mos'the- 

neez. 
Descartes, da^kart'. 
Dessau, des'sa. 
Deventer, da'ven-ter. 
Duns Scotus, dunz sko'- 

tus. 

E 
Emile, a-mel'. 
Erasmus, e-raz'mus. 
Erigena, e-rig'e-na. 



290 



PRONUNCIATION OF NAMES 



F 

Fenelon, fa"neh-loii'. 
FiCHTE, fik'teli. 
Francke, fran'keh. 
Froebel, fro'bel. 

G 

Gargantua, gar-gan'tti-a. 

H 

Halle, hal'le. 
Herodotus, he-rod'o-tus. 



M 

Magnus, mag'noos. 
Melanchthon, me-lank' 

thon. 
Mencius, men'sM-us. 
Montaigne, mon'tan". 

N 

Neuhof, noi'hof. 
NiCALE, ne'kol. 



Origen, or'i-jen. 



Jacotot, zak'ko'to'. 
Jerome, je-roin'. 

K 

Keilhau, kel'a. 
Konigsberg, ko'nigs-berg. 



Lamy, la'me. 
LaSalle, la-sal'. 
Literator, lit'er-a-tor. 
LiTERATUS, lit-e-ra'tus. 
Loyola, loi-o'la. 
Lycurgus, ll-kiir'gus. 



Pantagruel, pan-tag'ru-el. 
Pericles, per'i-kleez. 
Pestalozzi, pes-ta-16t'see. 
Petrarch, pee'trark. 
Pliny, plin'i. 
Prague, prag or prag. 
Ptolemy, toPe-mi. 
Pythagoras, pi-tliag'o-ras. 

R 

Rabelais, ra'bla". 
Ramus, rii'moos. 
Renaissance, re-nas'sans. 
Reuchlin, roik'lin. 
Rousseau, roo"so'. 



291 



PRONUNCIATION OF NAMES 

S Trotzendorf, trot'sen- 

dorf. 



Socrates, sok'ra-teez. 

Strabo, stra'bo. ^ 

Sturm, stoorm or stiirm. y^^^^^^ ^^^^^g^ 

YvERDON, e'ver'don". 
T 

Telemachus, te-lem'a-kus. 

Tertullian^ ter-tiiri-an. Zoroaster, zor-o-as'ter. 

490. References. 

Young students are bewildered by the number of 
references assigned in the history of education. The 
theory of wide reading is good enough, but is it not bet- 
ter education to get a foundation from one book that 
presents the matter in a satisfactory way? Pass from 
clear percepts to clear concepts and then get as much 
breadth as the individual can sustain, but do not scat- 
ter the thoughts by research before there is an apper- 
ceptive basis formed. These references are therefore 
suggested according to types of students. 

1. For beginners and others who need to know the 
facts, Kemp's History of Education is adequate and 
stimulating. The author's style is pleasing, related 
facts are expressed instead of being assumed as known, 
and balanced credit is distributed among Jews, Catho- 
lics and Protestants. J. B. Lippincott Company, Phila- 
delphia. 

Seeley's History of Education, latest edition. Ameri- 
can Book Company. 

Bardeen's Dictionary of Educational Biography 
gives in terse form the facts so often needed to supple- 

292 



REFERENCES 

ment ordinary text-books. C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, 
N. Y. 

2. For other students. Cubberly's Syllabus of Lec- 
tures on the History of Education has references to suit 
all needs. Macmillan Company, New York. 

Monroe, Paul. A Brief Course in the History of Edu- 
cation. 

Monroe, Paul. A Text-Book in the History of Educa- 
tion. Complete for general reference. ]\Iacmillan Com- 
pany. 

Cyclopedia of Education, edited by Paul IMonroe. 5 
volumes. IMacmillan Company. 

Davidson, Thomas. A History of Education. Charles 
Scribner's Sons. 

Graves, F. P. A History of Education during the 
Middle Ages and the Transition to Modern Times. 
Macmillan Company. 

Schwickerath, R. Jesuit Education. B. Herder, St. 
Louis. 

Quick, Robert H. Educational Reformers. 

Williams, S. G. History of Modern Education. C. 
W. Bardeen. 

Pen Wen Kuo. The Chinese System of Public Edu- 
cation. Teachers College, New York. 

Turner, William. History of Philosophy. Ginn & 
Company. 

3. For those who desire topical outlines. 
Aspinwall, William B. Outlines of the History of 

Education. Macmillan Company. 

Tucker, Louise Emery. Visualized History of Educa- 
tion. Hinds, Noble & Eldredge, New York. 

Both of these books, issued respectively in 1912 and 

293 



REFERENCES 

1914, follow closely the plan of the first edition of Mc- 
Evoy's Epitome, 1907. Aspinwall has references by 
pages and Tucker has graphic charts. 

4. For correlated study. The mastery of history of 
education apart from psychological principles and ap- 
plied methods of teaching is impossible. The mind is 
not developed by vertical sections. Here, therefore, is 
a list of books that can assure any faithful student a 
safe, broad and invigorating view of the best in mod- 
ern education. 

James. Talks to Teachers. Henry Holt & Co. 

Halleck. Psychology and Psychic Culture. Ameri- 
can Book Company. 

Home. The Philosophy of Education. Macmillan 
Company. 

Bagley. Educative Process. ]\Iacmillan Company. 

Spencer. Education. C. W. Bardeen. 

Eliot. Education for Efficiency. Houghton Mifflin 
Company. 

Blow, Susan E. Symbolic Education. 

Klapper. Principles of Educational Practice. D. 
Appleton & Company. 

McEvoy. Methods in Education. 

McEvoy. Science of Education. 

5. For general reading. 

Myers. General History. Ginn & Company. 

Adams. Civilization During the Middle Ages. Charles 
Scribner's Sons. 

Symonds. Renaissance in Italy — The Revival of 
Learning. Henry Holt & Co. 

Dexter. History of Education in the United States. 
Macmillan Company. 

294 



Chapter XXXIII 

NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS OF HISTORY 
OF EDUCATION 

491. The suggestions issued by the Education De- 
partment are helpful guides to the essentials. The work 
presented here is a compilation from various pamphlets 
and circulars published during the last ten years. 

492. The syllabus is intended to give the outline 
upon which the work in this subject Avill be based and 
not to present methods of teaching it. 

It is expected, however, that this subject will be 
taught in a manner to inspire interest therein for its 
own sake, to arouse a professional spirit, to bring the 
class into intimate acquaintance and sympathy with the 
great educators of the past, to secure an intelligent ap- 
preciation of current pedagogical discussions, and to 
beget serious reflection upon the real nature of educa- 
tion and the true aim of the educator. 

A complete history of education would include a rec- 
ord of all influences, human and otherwise, which have 
affected mankind at all times and in all places. In its 
narrower and usual sense it concerns itself with con- 
scious, premeditated efforts to realize some ideal of per- 
fection in the individual. The chief ends sought in the 
study of the subject are breadth of view, steadiness of 
purpose, that inspiration which comes from the study 

296 



NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 

of the masters, and a somewhat connected account of 
the development of present educational ideals and the 
circumstances which have furthered or hindered this 
development. 

493. The evolution of education in primitive so- 
ciety. 

Education in relation to civilization. The history of 
education and universal history. Education through 
the experiences of life. The transmission of experi- 
ences in primitive society. Institutions as the embodi- 
ment of customs and ideals. The basis and beginnings 
of instruction in the family. The domination of institu- 
tions in primitive society. 

494. Oriental education. 

Each nation has evolved a system of education in ac- 
cordance with the dominant ideas of its civilization. 
The variety in systems and ideals mainly due to the re- 
lation of the social and individual factors to each other. 
The glaring contrast, in general, between oriental and 
occidental education as to the importance of the indi- 
vidual. Discussion of Chinese, Hindoo, Persian, He- 
braic, and Egyptian education under the following 
heads : 

1. Social organization. 

2. Education as determined by social organization. 

a. Aim. 

h. Means. 

c. Method. 

d. Administration. 

e. Results, social and individual. 

297 



NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 

495. Greek education. 

The social organization of the city-state and its in- 
fluence in shaping education. Greek religion, art and 
national games. Aims in Greek education, Greek edu- 
cation in relation to Greek social organization. Sparta 
and Athens as types. The organization of the Athenian 
schools. Music and gymnastics. Tendency to indi- 
vidualism in Greek life and education. The new Greek 
education. The Sophists. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. 
Philosophical schools and their permanent significance. 
Significance of the Alexandrian period. Education as 
the essence of Greek life. Emergence of the ideal of a 
liberal education. 

496. Ideals and methods of Roman education. 

Comparison of the Roman national ideal with that of 
Greece. Ideals of Roman education as expressed in 
Roman social organization, Roman education and the 
characteristic Roman virtues. Conception of the prac- 
tical value of education. Periods of Roman education. 
Hellenic influence. Organization of the Roman schools. 
The Roman Humanitas. Educational theorists. Cicero 
and Quintilian. 

497. Early Christian education. 

To 529 A. D,, the date of the abolition of pagan 
schools by Justinian, 

The educational implications of the doctrine of the 
Great Teacher, His method. The first Christian 
schools. The church fathers. The conflict with the 
pagan learning. The tendency to asceticism. General 

298 



NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 

results of the intei-action of Greek, Roman and Chris- 
tian influences on education. 

1. Pre-Christian education inefficient. 

No nation rises above its idea of a God. 

Greeks and Romans had lost their traditionary faith 
and regarded intellectual and esthetic culture as 
the highest aim of education. 

The equality of man practically unknown to the Ro- 
man empire. 

2. Christian education a new force reconstructive in 

character. 
Aim: a perfect life. 
Teachings : the immortality of the soul ; 

The brotherhood of man; 

The worth of the individual. 
Condition: that conduced to the rapid spread of 

Christianity. 

3. Christian and pagan ideals. 

Christian education subordinated the intellectual to 
the moral and religious. 

Reasons for the devotion of the early Christians to 
their ideals. 

Christian vs. Greek solution of the problem of the 
individual and society as shown in the attitude 
towards poverty, wealth, social position, amuse- 
ments, occupations, moral standards, marriage, 
women, children, slaves, the state, foreign nations. 

4. Decadence of the Romano-Hellenic schools and the 

supremacy of Christian education consummated 

by the Edict of Justinian. 
Total rejection of pagan ideals not possible. 
Culture represented by classical literature. 
299 



NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 

The church antagonistic to scientific investigation. 
Effect of hostility against pagan learning upon the 

condition of education for a thousand years. 
5. First Christian schools. 

Nature and object of instruction. 

Methods largely based upon the work of Christ as a 

teacher. 
Characteristics of these methods. 
Catechetical and Catechuminal schools. 
Reasons for their organization. 
Class of students. 
Subjects taught. 

Schools at Alexandria, C^esarea, Rome, Carthage. 
Alexandria a Christian university A. D. 389. 
Christian fathers and striking characteristics of their 

works and teachings: Justin Martyr, Clement of 

Alexandria, Origen, St. Basel, Chrysostom, Ter- 

tullian, St. Jerome, St. Augustine. 

498. Education during the Middle Ages. 

From 529 A. D, to the revival of learning. 
The decline of schools. Monasticism and the seven 
liberal arts. Episcopal and parochial schools. The 
Carolingian revival and the work of Alcuin. Alfred 
the Great. Education of the knight. The Crusades as 
an educational factor. Saracenic education. The 
schoolmen and the rise of the universities. Mysticism. 
The burgher schools. The church as the instrument of 
education. 
1. Monastic education. 

Monasticism resulting from the ascetic spirit that 
followed the supremacy of Christianity. 
300 



NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 

Types of life represented: Cenobites^ Anchorites. 

The monastery described. 

Names and location of the most noted monasteries. 

Monastic orders : Benedictines, Dominicans, Cister- 
cians, Franciscans. 

Rules of the orders, poverty, labor. 

Provisions for study. 

Subjects taught. 

Use of pagan literature. 

The seven liberal arts ; trivium, quadrivium. 

Transcribing manuscripts. 

Collecting libraries. 

Special work of the Irish monks. 

The revival of learning under Charles the Great and 
scope of his efforts. 

The palace and castle schools. 

Subjects taught. * 

Use of the vernaculars. 

Alcuin, Rabanus Maurus, Joannes Scotus Erigina. 

The origin of mysticism, its teachings. 

Relapse of the 10th and 11th centuries. 
2. Saracenic learning. 

Mohammedan migrations and conquests. 

Intellectual advancement as shown by the patronage 
given to learning. 

Schools and libraries. 

Translations. 

Architecture, the Alhambra a type. 

Work in mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, 
medicine and surgery. 

Contributions to the Christian world. 

Decline. 

301 



NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 

S. Forms of education from the 10th to the 13th cen- 
turies inchisive. 

Feudalism the social basis of medieval education. 

The institution described. 

Causes contributing to its growth. 

Relations of feudalism to church and state. 

Forms of medieval education. 

Chivalry, a new educational force, an outgrowth of 
feudalism and the influence of the church; its 
special value to a crude age; its code; inadequacy 
of the schools to teach its code; training of the 
page, the squire, the knight ; results of chivalry; 
its decline and end. 

Monastic and cathedral schools train for clerical du- 
ties. 

Industrial education: the apprentice system, the 
gild. 

The destruction of feudalism. 

The Crusades, their origin and purpose ; reasons for 
their humanizing and educative effect. 

The rise of free cities. 

Growths of municipal, parish and endowed grammar 
schools. 

The Brotherhood of the Common Life. 
4. Scholasticism. 

Medieval science. 

A system of intellectual discipline. 

Its purpose to harmonize ancient philosophy, es- 
pecially that of Aristotle, with the doctrines of 
Christianity. 

Reasons for the growth of the scientific spirit. 

Great schoolmen : Abelard, Roger Bacon. 
302 



NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 

Limits of scholasticism. 
Its decline and downfall. 

Its service in awakening the minds of men and so 
accelerating the growth of the universities. 

5. The rise of the nniversities. 
Causes contributing to their growth. 

The evolution of the first universities at Salerno, 
Bologna and Paris. 

Special work of each. 

How the universities were supported and gov- 
erned. 

Conflict W'ith municipal authorities. 

Special privileges. 

Temporary nature of their location and its effect. 

Courses of study. 

Discipline. 

]\fethods of teaching. 

Graduation and degrees. 

Customs, habits and morals of students. 

Oxford and Cambridge. 

Revival of study of Greek language. 

Effect of invention of printing upon the methods 
and content of instruction. 

Influence as a public force. 

A power for freedom in an age of oppression. 

Interference in affairs of church and state. 

Effect of interchange of students. 

Preparation of leaders for the revival of learning 
know^n as the Renaissance. 

6. Summary. 

In leaving the work outlined in this syllabus certain 
important facts should be emphasized because of 
303 



NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 

their bearing upon the Renaissance and all later 
educational development. Special attention is 
therefore due the lasting and broadening effects 
of the gradual and general growth of Christianity 
throughout Europe, the enlightening influence of 
the Crusades, the breaking down of feudalism, the 
rise of great municipalities with their wealth and 
refinement, the rise of the modern nations, the 
effect of the inventions of the mariner's compass 
and the art of printing, the growth of the ver- 
naculars to the status of written languages; and 
the gradual improvement in methods of travel, 
communication, manufacture and art, especially 
architecture, 

499. The Renaissance and education. 

Courses of revival. Humanism in Italy: Dante^, 
Petrarcli and Boccaccio. Humanism beyond the Alps: 
Agricola, Reuchlin and Erasmus. Da Feltra, Colet, 
Ascham, Melanclithon and Sturm. Effect of the Renais- 
sance on education. 

1. Introductory. 

Renaissance. 

Its approximate date. 

Its derivation. 

Its broad meaning-revival of classical learn- 
ing (literature and art). 
Humanism. 

Its meaning. 

2. State of learning at the close of the Dark Ages. 

Saracenic influence. 

Greek and mathematics in German and Ital- 
304 



NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 

ian universities (extent and manner of 

introduction). 
Scientific investigation ; Roger Bacon. 
Subtle disputations by the schoolmen. 
Christian ideals and the dignity of the 

soul. 
Causes leading to the Renaissance ; ilhistration and 
discussion of each cause. 
The ''Deventer" influence. 
The breaking up of the Greek empire. 
The gradual transference of scholars and 

manuscripts. 
The crusades. 

The development of vernacular literature. 
Spirit of life in the great cities. 
Strengthening of the government of Central 

Europe. 
The establishment of universities. 
Numerous church councils. 
The invention of the art of printing. 
Mutual acquaintances of different govern- 
ments through diplomacy. 
Interest in the study of Greek literature. 
Geographical discoveries. 
The invention of the mariner's compass. 
The breaking down of feudalism. 
The invention of gunpowder. 
The progress of civilization of the Teutonic 

race. 
Humanism in Italy. 

Pioneers — Dante, Boccaccio, Petrarch. 
Intellectual activity of Florence. 
305 



NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 

Influence of kinship of the Italians with 
noted men of the past. 

The changed meaning of the monuments of 
the civilization of ancient Rome. 

Search for old manuscripts; the founding of 
libraries ; the Aldine Press. 

Patrons of the new learning. 

Italian painting; the four masters; exam- 
ples of their work. 

5. Humanism in Germany. 

Leaders — Agricola, Reuchlin, Erasmus, 
Its field compared with that in Italy. 
Attitude toward the existing state of the 

church. 
''The Letters of Obscure Men." 
Protestant high schools. 
The Jesuit schools : aims, methods, discipline 

and courses of study. 
The gymnasium, 

6. Humanism in England. 

Reasons for its fullest development here. 
New learning in Oxford. 
Erasmus in Cambridge. 

Change in the curriculum of the univer- 
sities. 
Growth of public schools. 
Dramatic literature. 
Education of women. 

7. Humanism in America. 

a. In the Colonial period. 
h. At the present time. 
306 



NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 

8. Results of humanistic education. 

a. Good — (1) General; (2) on the indi- 
vidual. 
&. Bad ; how in each of the countries. 

500. The Reformation and the Counter-Reforma- 
tion. 

Educational significance of the Reformation. Luther, 
Melanchthon and Knox. Sturm, "the Cicero of Ger- 
many." Trotzendorf, the monitorial system and self- 
government of pupils. Neander. Origin and constitu- 
tion of the Jesuits. Merits and limitations. 

The teaching societies. The Jesuits. The Oratorians. 
The Port Royalists. The Brethren of the Christian 
Schools. The Pietists. 

501. Rise of realism and science in education. 

The humanistic and the realistic tendencies in educa- 
tion. Rise of realism and utilitarianism in education as 
opposed to humanism and culture. Verbal realism, 
Rabelais and Milton. Social realism, I\Iontaigne. Ba- 
con and the inductive study of nature. Comenius. The 
educational theories of Comenius. The rise of the con- 
ception of method in instruction. The place of Co- 
menius in the history of education. 

502. Development of modem educational theory. 

Rabelais and realen. Ascham and method in lan- 
guage teaching. IMontaigne and the relative values of 
character, wisdom and knowledge. INIulcaster and edu- 
cation versus learning. 

The innovators: Bacon and the Novum Organum. 

307 



NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 

Eatke's visions and experiments. Milton's Tractate. 
Comenius and universal popular education. Rollin's 
Trait des etudes. Locke and the education of a gentle- 
man. Fenelon and his theory of female education. 

The New Education : Rousseau and education accord- 
ing to nature. Basedow and his Philanthropinum. Pes- 
talozzi and harmonious development. Froebel and the 
philosophy of education. Herbart and the science of 
education. Jacotot the methodizer. Spencer and edu- 
cation for complete living. 

Introductory 

1. Locke — founder of naturalistic movement ; placed the 

child instead of the branches of instruction in 
the forefront of pedagogic consideration. 

Doctrine : All knowledge comes through the 
senses and experience and should lead 
through discipline to truth. 
Influence: Strengthened the doctrines of 
''formal discipline" and that training is 
more important than knowledge. 

2. Rousseau — worked out Locke's theories with 

^'EmiW' ; inspired Pestalozzi to apply naturalis- 
tic theories, with emphasis on moral develop- 
ment, to the masses; strengthened the idea of 
education as development and growth and thus 
introduced the psychologic tendency. 

Principles : Education is the free development 
of the child according to his own nature 
through direct experience. 
Education should be negative, withholding di- 
308 



NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 

rect instruction of truth, but guarding 
against error. 

Interest should be the sole guide to intellectual 
training. 

Moral training should be by natural conse- 
quences. 
3. Basedow and the Philanthropinists — the first to give 
expression to naturalistic views. 

Principles : Children should be treated as chil- 
dren^ not as adults. 

Languages should be taught by conversational 
methods, and the vernacular should be the 
chief subject-matter of instruction. 

Physical exercises and games and the learning 
of a handicraft should find a place in the 
child's education. 

Instruction should be based upon realities, not 
upon words. 
General characteristics of the psychologic movement. 

1. Sympathy for and knowledge of childhood and child 

mind. 

2. New attention paid to method based upon a rational 

psA^chology. 

3. Education seen to mean a development, a natural 

process of growth from within. 

4. More attention given to elementary education and to 

education for the masses. 
Chief exponents of the movement. 
1. Pestalozzi. ''Before Pestalozzi, popular education 
did not exist. . . . For him was reserved the fame 
of having not only restored to credit the processes 
of the method of sense-perception, already known 
309 



NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 

and applied, but of having realized the social im- 
portance of the education of^the people." 
a. Biography — his life and literary activity. 
h. Doctrines: ''Education is a social duty; 
aim of education is to prepare men to be 
what they will be in society." 

''The aim of all education and instruc- 
tion is and can be no other than the har- 
monious development of the powers and 
faculties of human nature, ' ' hence educa- 
tion and instruction should be based upon 
a knowledge of the laws of the develop- 
ment of the mind. 

c. Principles of method: Sense-perception is 

the absolute foundation of all knowl- 
edge. 

Language must be linked with observation 
— number, form, language are the means 
of instruction. 

Teaching must begin with the simplest ele- 
ments and proceed gradually. 

The time for learning is not the time for 
judgment. 

The chief end of elementary teaching is not 
to impart knowledge, but to develop and 
increase the powers of intelligence. 

The teacher should respect the individuality 
of the pupil. 

Discipline must be based upon and ruled by 
love. 

d. Influence in Prussia. 
Influence in United States. 

310 



NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 

(1) First school and teacher — Neef in 

Philadelphia. 

(2) In New England— Russell, Olcott, 

Mason, Barnard, Page. 

(3) In New York — Sheldon and the Os- 

wego Normal; the influence of the 
Oswego movement upon Victor ]\I. 
Rice. 
(•i) In St. Louis— AVilliam T. Harris. 
2. Herhart — recognizes the need of psychology as a 
basis for instruction and develops a psychology 
that can be used in the practical problems of 
teaching; formulates the flrst system of educa- 
. tion that unifies education from kindergarten to 
university and makes pedagogy a science. 
a. Biography — his life and literary activity. 
h. Doctrines : The entire content of conscious- 
ness is due to experiences and therefore 
can be modified by education. 
The immediate aim of education is a bal- 
anced^ many-sided interest leading to 
knowledge and sympathy. 
The ultimate aim is to determine the will 
toward virtue — moral life is the end of 
all education ; but such life depends upon 
the nature of the world organized in the 
mind and soul and can be furthered by 
education. 
c. Basis of his psychology: the doctrine of 
apperception. "Sense-perceptions are the 
elements of mental life and their com- 
binations, permutations and interactions 
311 



NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 

cause all the rest of the manifold forms 
of consciousness." The mind develops 
through its own experiences through the 
acquisitions of presentations or sense- 
perceptions; education or instruction, 
however, controls these presentations, 
hence the importance of the influence and 
guidance of the teacher in presenting 
presentations. 

d. Contrast between Pestalozzi and Herbart — 

perception versus apperception. 
Pestalozzi emphasizes the use of the senses, 
but lays little stress on previous knowl- 
edge; Herbart 's chief object is to secure 
the reaction of the mind upon what is 
offered to the senses. 

e. Principles and questions of method : Methods 

of instruction must harmonize with the 
psychologic development of the child. 
The meaning of the following terms: 
Five formal steps of method. 
Doctrine of interest. 
Culture-epoch theory. 
Theories of correlation, coordination, con- 
centration. 
Relative value of studies. 
/. Influence in Germany and in the United 
States. 

Froehel — crystallizes theories into practical methods, 
especially with reference to the young child ; rec- 
ognizes the value of self-activity and the power 
312 



NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 

of play to awaken and to strengthen the intelli- 
gence and the soul as well as the body. 

a. Biography — his life and literary activity. 
h. Contrast between Herbart and Proebel: 
Herbart emphasizes the importance of the 
teacher and the method of instruction, 
Proebel the importance of the child, as 
the factor in the educative process. To 
Froebel, education is conscious evolution; 
the child must be self-active in the ac- 
quisition and assimilation as well as in 
the expression of knowledge. 

c. Principles: "In all things there lives and 

reigns an eternal law." The child must 
be brought into harmony with this law of 
unity. This is accomplished by conti- 
nuity in education and by self-activity. 
Continuity: ''education should be one 
connected whole and should advance with 
an orderly, continuous growth." Self- 
activity : ' ' activity determined by one 's 
own motives, arising out of one's own in- 
terests and sustained b}^ one's OAvn 
power." 

(1) Porms of activity: play, manual 

activities, expression in gesture, 
song, language, construction. 

(2) Development of method expounded 

in kindergarten gifts, occupa- 
tions, mother-songs and plays. 

d. Influence. 

(1) In Germany. 
313 



NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 

(2) In United States — Elizabeth Pea- 
body, Mrs. Carl Schurz, Dr. Wil- 
liam T. Harris, Susan Blow. 

503. Development of public education in the United 
States. 

The more important educational activities in colonial 
America. Character and influence of the academy in 
American education. The secondary school. Horace 
Mann and the common school revival. The normal school 
system. European influences in American education. 
The educational situation. 

504. Development of school systems. 

The principal steps in the development of the school 
systems of Germany, France, England and the United 
States. The present administration of these systems, 
the school attendance, the various grades of schools, the 
manner in which the schools are supported, the curricu- 
lums, and the provision for the training of teachers. In 
the study of the development of the educational systems 
in the United States stress should be laid on the work 
of the common schools and the influence of such men 
as Horace Mann, Henry Barnard, Francis W. Parker, 
and W. T. Harris. 

505. Education in New York State. 

Stages in the development of elementary, secondary 
and higher education. Professional, technical, commer- 
cial, industrial, and other branches of education. The 
present administration of education in New York 
State. 

314 



NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 

506. Modern tendencies in education. 

The child study movement — societies for the study of 
education. The problem of the curriculum. Night and 
vacation schools — centralization of schools. Parent- 
teacher circles. Physical education and improvements 
in buildings and surroundings, etc. 

Medieval guilds and the liberation of the laborer. Ef- 
fects of the Industrial Revolution. The social problem 
presented by the industrial and democratic type of so- 
ciety. Origin and growth of industrial education. In- 
dustrial training in Germany, France and England. 
Education demanded for individual and social efficiency 
in America. 



315 



Chapter XXXIV 
GENERAL SUMMARY 

507. Purpose. 

This chapter is intended to help students organize 
the principal facts into periods or other unities which 
clearly indicate development in history and principles 
of education. 

Oriental Education 

Purposeful effort to secure specific ends but not har- 
monious development. 

Classical Education 

508. Greece. 

Sparta. Physical training of boys to prepare for 
service to the state; of girls to prepare to bring forth 
vigorous sons. Health, obedience, loyalty^ courage. 

Athens. Culture an ideal; literary, esthetic, physical 
training to produce harmonious or balanced training of 
all human powers. ''The true, the beautiful^ the 
good." Music and gymnastics for elementary training, 
philosophy and vocational drill for higher preparation. 

Socrates. Method of teaching by questioning to de- 
velop valid concepts; expose error, lead to truth; in- 

316 



GENERAL SUMMARY 

terest, self-activity, reasoning and judgment. The 
method was inductive. 

Plato. A pupil of Socrates; school called Academy; 
Laws and RepuNic; three classes of people, education 
adapted bj^ epochs; lecture method; psychology in his 
theory of ideas. 

Aristotle. One of Plato's pupils; school called Ly- 
ceum; Politics and Ethics; inductive and deductive 
methods, with preference for latter. 

509. Rome. 

Efficiency an ideal; institutional; organization; ora- 
tory ; practical, obedient citizens. Learn to do by doing. 

Cicero: orator; mild treatment of pupils. 

Seneca : philosopher ; Nero. 

Quintilian: teacher of rhetoric; Institutes of Oratory; 
vs. corporal punishment; public schools best, object 
method for letters, graphic method for writing, i. e., 
tracing ; learn foreign language first ; literary education. 

The Christian Era 

510. Period 1 to 1500. 

1. Discipline of mind and body an ideal; aimed to 
save the soul; religious. Discipline comes from per- 
sistent exercise; formal culture. 

2. Ideal pedagogy of The Great Teacher. The Chris- 
tian Fathers helped formulate material for instruction, 
interpreted Christian doctrines for subsequent use, and 
served as the transition from classical period to monas- 
tic period. 

3. Monks — Benedictines, Franciscans, Dominicans, 
Cistercians. 

317 



GENERAL SUMMARY 

Course of study, Seven Liberal Arts, in use 1000 
years. 

Trivium: Grammar, rhetoric, logic. 

Quadrivium : Arithmetic, geometry, music, astron- 
omy. 

4. Charlemagne. 9th century. Founded schools ; best 
teachers; Alcuin secured as teacher; Charlemagne him- 
self a student ; German for Lord 's Prayer and Apostles ' 
Creed; national system of universal, compulsory educa- 
tion. 

Alfred the Great. England. Education for higher 
classes — language, customs and laws. 

5. Feudalism. 1000-1200. Three periods of knight's 
education : home, page, esquire ; seven perfections ; 
woman exalted. 

Mohammedans. Sciences: chemistry originated; uni- 
versities after elementary schools ; Bagdad and Cordova. 

6. Crusades, universities, scholasticism, 1200-1500. 

Religious aim, to rescue Jerusalem; mental awaken- 
ing, interest, activity (compare preparation in formal 
steps) ; downfall of feudalism; brotherhood of man, in- 
ventions, discoveries, explorations, commerce. 

7. Universities. Salerno, Bologna, Paris, Prague, 
Oxford, Cambridge, etc. 

Faculties — law, medicine, philosophy, theology. 
Abelard at Paris. 

8. Scholasticism. 9th-15th centuries. 

{a) Aim to reconcile philosophy and the Christian 
religion. 

(&) Thomas Aquinas and Abelard. 

(c) Methods — lecture, syllogism or deductive reason- 



318 



GENERAL SUMMARY 

Modern Education 

511. 16th Century. Renaissance. Realism. 

The period of Charlemagne was the first renaissance; 
Scholasticism was second ; and this period was the great 
renaissance, or the revival of learning. Discipline of 
intellect an ideal ; formal discipline from study of classi- 
cal Latin and Greek. 

1. Humanism. Literary studies humanize, refine. 
Dante: Inferno, Divine Comedy. 

Erasmus: translator, printer; Greek testament. 
Study Latin and Greek together. 

2. Printing in fifteenth century was best stimulus to 

renaissance. 

3. Reforms. 

Luther, theory of education; primary schools; Ger- 
man language only; music; pedagogical training 
needed by all teachers ; trades ; national control. 

Melanchthon, organizer; books on Greek, Logic, 
Rhetoric, Hebrew; Saxony School Plan, 3 grades, 
Latin the only language ; founder of public school 
system. E. 128. 

Sturm, successful organizer; Classical High School 
Course; Latin and Greek; double translation; 
Strasburg Gymnasium. 

4. Jesuits, or counter-reformers. 

Aims — to be the best teachers, preachers, confessors. 
Course of study — Ratio Studiorum, 1599. 
Criticism: Most efficient system for three centuries. 
Trained teachers ; mild discipline ; emulation. 

5. Ascham. Queen Elizabeth ; double translation. 

Scholemaster. 

319 



GENERAL SUMMARY 

6. Rabelais. Realist: natural science. Concrete to ab- 

stract; known to related unknown; things before 
words. Gargantua, satire on scholastic education. 

7. Montaigne. Use senses. Use science. No corporal 

punishment. Beauty and pleasure in school 
rooms. Essays on Pedantry. 

512. 17th Century. Innovators. 

Realism applied ; new views. 

1. Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) had depopulated 

Germany and set her back two hundred years in 
character, intelligence and morality. 

2. Educators vs. humanistic studies ; for real, practical 

work. 

3. Principles of education : 
a. Things before words. 
&. Sense instruction. 

c. Begin with mother tongue^ French or German. 

d. Latin or Greek for advanced work. 

e. Physical training. 

/. According to nature. 

4. Comenius. Knowledge an ideal. Organization, 

methods, books. 

School system ; 4 periods of 6 years each. 

Text-books: Orhis Pictus; Gate of Tongues Un- 
locked; Great Didactic. 

Principles : Learn to do by doing ; learn a language 
by use; nature is the basis of all learning. Ex- 
ternal physical nature the guide ; analogy of pre- 
paring soil for crops. 

5. Francis Bacon. Inductive philosophy and modern 

science. Essays; Novum Organum. 
320 



GENERAL SUMMARY 

6. Locke. 

Private schools for higher classes of people. 

Learn Latin by conversation or interlinear transla- 
tion. 

Memory trained by short passages. 

Interest and pleasure. 

Leave to your children 

a. virtue c. good manners 

h. prudence d. instruction 

Essays concerning Human Understanding. 

Thoughts on Education. 

7. Milton. Very broad system of education. Paradise 

Lost. 

8. Ratke or Ratich. Germany. 
Natural method in mastery of language. 
Double translation. 

Uniformity in speech, etc. 

9. Port Royalists of France. 

Vs. Jesuits; more heart in religion. Object teach- 
ing. Phonetic spelling. Text-hooks on Logic, 
etc. 

10. Pietists of Germany. Francke and Institutions at 

Halle. 
Vs. Reformers; more piety in religion. Peda- 
gogium, Real-gymnasium, orphan asylum, etc. ; 
3200 students in 1727. Real-school; modern 
languages, sciences, arts; vs. Classical Gymna- 
sium. 

11. Fenelon : Indirect instruction. Education of Girls, 

Dialogues of the Bead. 

12. Christian Brothers. First normal school, Rheims, 

1684. Primary schools. Simultaneous methods. 
321 



GENERAL SUMMARY 

513. 18th Century. Naturalism. 

Development an ideal. Realism continued. Accord- 
ing to nature includes nature of child. 

1. Rousseau. E. 178-191. 

Emile : stages^ course of study ; attention to child 
study. According to nature, negative education, 
discipline of consequences or natural punish- 
ment. 

2. Basedow. Philanthropin at Dessau. Purely secular 

education. Failure, but influenced Europe. Ele- 
mentary Book. 

514. 19th Century. Naturalism, science. 

1. Pestalozzi. Percepts the basis of knowledge. 

a. Naturalness in teaching and learning, 

&. Love. 

c. National system. 

d. Evening Hours of a Hermit — educational max- 

ims. 

e. Leonard and Gertrude — nature of village life in 

Switzerland. 
/. How Gertrude Teaches Her Children — his own 
principles. 

2. Froebel. Kindergarten. Keilhau. 

a. Harmonious training. 

h. Self-activity. 

c. Productiveness; occupations. 

d. Play; social activity; religion. 

e. Songs for Mother and Nursery. 

f. Education of Man. 

3. Herbart. Character an ideal. Concepts the basis of 

knowledge. Formal steps of instruction. Peda- 
322 



GENERAL SUMMARY 

gogy made a science. Will in character. In- 
terest. 

4. Horace Mann: Massachusetts Reports, mild disci- 

pline; normal schools; American public school 
system. 

5. David Page: Albany Normal; Theory and Practice 

of Teaching. 

6. Barnard: Connecticut Reports. 

7. Thomas Arnold: Rugby. Character in boys. 

8. Jacotot: Repetition, ''All can learn," "All can 

teach." 

9. Spencer: Complete living; science; Education. 

515. 20th Century. Eclectic view. 

Combination of best features of former views. 

Bagley's The Educative Process. 

Butler's The Cleaning of Education. 

Dewey's School and Society. 

Home's Philosophy of Education. 

James's Talks to Teachers. 

McMurry's Elementary School Standards. 

Perry's The Management of a City School. 

516. Courses of study. 

Indicate facts of time, nation, or men. 

1. Music and Gymnastics. 

2. Seven Liberal Arts. 

3. Law, ]\Iedicine, Philosophy, Theology. 

4. Llumanism. 

5. Classical High School Course. 

6. Ratio Studiorum. 

7. Eclectic courses. 

323 



GENERAL SUMMARY 



517. 

Name 


Books. 

, authors or books. 




1. 


Laws. 




2. 


Republic. 




3. 


Plutarch. 




4. 


Quintilian. 




5. 


Confessions. 




6. 


Koran. 




7. 


Erasmus. 




8. 


Gargantua. 




9. 


The Advancement of Learning. 




10. 


Tractate on Education. 




11. 


Comenius. 




12. 


Locke. 




13. 


tmile. 




14. 


Elementary Book, or Elementarhuch, 
mentarwerk. 


or Ele 


15. 


Pestalozzi. 




16. 


Education of Man. 




17. 


Education. 




18. 


School and Society. 




19. 


Educative Process. 




20. 


The Meaning of Education. 





518. Schools, organizations, or institutions. 
Associate essential facts. 

1. Academy. 

2. Lyceum. 

3. Monasticism. 

4. Bagdad and Cordova. 

5. Christian universities. 

6. Scholasticism. 

324 



GENERAL SUMMARY 

7. Strasburg gymnasium. 

8. Christian Brotliers at Rlieims. 

9. Port Royal. 

10. Halle. 

11. Philanthropin or Philanthropinum at Dessau. 

12. Yverdon. 

13. Keilhau. 

14. Rugby. 

15. Common schools of United States. 

519. Method of teaching*. 

Give name of method or tell name of user. 

1. Socrates. 

2. Aristotle. 

3. Scholastics. 

4. Double translation. 

5. Prelection, repetition, disputation (Method of 

studying Latin in schools of Jesuits). 

6. Inductive method. 



520. 


Life virtues. 




Associate nations or educators. 


1. 


Obedience. 




2. 
3. 
4. 


Respect. 

Courtesy. 

Silence. 




5. 


Self-control. 




6. 


Order or organization. 


7. 
8. 


Accuracy. 
Neatness. 




9. 
10. 


Good posture. 
Love. 


326 



Chapter XXXV 
DRILL AND REVIEW 

1. Define education. 

2. What is the meaning of history? 

3. Name seven ideals in the history of education. 

Which one is the most comprehensive ? Give rea- 
son for your choice. 

4. Which form of education is priestly? ancestral? 

state? caste? 

5. Describe Chinese competitive examinations. 

6. Who was Confucius ? Give one quotation from him. 

7. Explain the philosophy of Zoroaster. 

8. What nation originated geometry? Why? 

9. Why were the Hindus an imaginative people? 

10. Mention two virtues sought in each oriental nation. 

11. Contrast the caste systems of India and Egypt. 

12. What subjects were studied by (a) the Magi, (&) 

priests ? 

13. What advance in methods of teaching in Egypt? 

14. Describe the Socratic method of teaching and dis- 

cuss its application. 

15. Define and illustrate (a) deductive method, (h) 

inductive method. 

16. Mention three principles of pedagogy advocated by 

Aristotle. 

328 



DRILL AND REVIEW 

17. Compare the first seven years of the Athenian 

child's life with those of the Spartan child; con- 
trast their later education. 

18. Describe the two great writings of Plato. 

19. Why were Spartan women educated? 

20. What educator made harmony his basis? 

21. Mention three favorable points in Spartan educa- 

tion. 

22. Mention five defects of Spartan education. 

23. Who was the great lawgiver for (a) Athens, (6) 

Sparta? 
21. IMention five points in which Grecian education ex- 
celled oriental education. 

25. What were the duties of a pedagogue ? 

26. For what is Euclid noted? Pythagoras? Zoro- 

aster ? 

27. What was the Lyceum? the Academy? 

28. Name three Grecian books treating on education. 

29. Who was the most learned Grecian? 

30. Name the periods of education in Plato's scheme. 

31. What important treatise did Aristotle w^ite? 

32. Who was the author of deductive logic ? 

33. Show how play was utilized in Grecian education. 

34. Who taught Alexander the Great ? 

35. Athens sought to develop the true, the beautiful, 

and the good. What gain have we made in 
twenty-five hundred years? 
''We have made but one great change, that of sub- 
stituting material achievement for the esthetic 
expression of personality; and this is a change 
that is not an unmitigated blessing nor unqual- 
ified advance." (Monroe, page 59.) 
329 



DRILL AND REVIEW 

36. Distinguish (a) palestra and (&) gymnasia. 

The school of physical culture for youths in Greece 
was called a palestra; those for men were called 
gymnasia. 

37. What did music include in Grecian education? 

In general, all educative efforts presided over by 
the nine muses, as follows : Clio, the muse of his- 
tory; Euterpe, of lyric poetry; Thalia, of com- 
edy; Melpomene, of tragedy; Terpsichore, of 
choral dance; Erato, of amatory poetry; Poly- 
hymnia, of rhetoric and eloquence; Urania, of 
astronomy; Calliope, of epic poetry. 

38. Give three favorable criticisms of Roman education. 

39. Who was the first teacher to hold an endowed chair 

in education? 

40. Name the most eminent Roman philosopher. 

41. What was the chief aim in Roman education? 

42. Tell who wrote each of the following : 
a. Talmud. 

h. Iliad and Odyssey. 

c. Institutes of Oratory. 

d. Bepuhlic. 

e. Latin Orations. 

f. Yedas. 

g. Laws. 

h. Diialistic Philosophy. 

i. Politics. 

j. Parallel Lives. 

k. Training of Children. 

I. Deductive Logic. 

43. Give an account of the origin and the rise of the 

early Christian universities. 
330 



DRILL AND REVIEW 

44. Describe the relation between the Church and the 

schools. 

45. What did the Saracens do to foster learning? 

46. Define scholasticism. Name three schoolmen. 

47. Name three monastic orders. State four of their 

contributions to progress. 

48. Name three noted books of this period, and the 

author of each. 

49. Where were the first catechetical schools? What 

was their purpose? What was their method of 
teaching ? 

50. What two early Christian educators w^ere opposed 

to pagan literature? Why? What ones favored 
the use of Latin and Greek classics ? 

51. Name the Seven Liberal Arts. Who made this 

course ? 

52. What is the Koran ? Who compiled it ? 

53. Mention three of Charlemagne's reforms. What 

contributions to education did Alcuin make? 

54. Who was Alfred the Great? What language did 

he aid in developing? 

55. Name the seven perfections of a knight. 

56. Describe the three periods in feudal education. 

57. Define and illustrate syllogism. What educators 

used it ? What is its value ? 

58. Why were the early Christians backward in intel- 

lectual development? Three reasons. 

59. Explain the effects of the Crusades on educa- 

tion. 

60. Locate (a) five Christian universities^ (h) two Mos- 

lem universities. 

61. What new studies in this period? 

331 



DRILL AND REVIEW 

62. Status of woman? 

63. Name two books written by St. Augustine. 

64. What years are assigned to the Middle Ages? 

65. What were the four departments of instruction in 

the universities? 

66. Name authors: 

a. Letters on the Education of Girls. 

h. The Bible known as the Latin Vulgate. 

c. Confessions. 

d. The City of God. 

e. Education of the Clergy. 

f. Translation of Bede's History of the English 

People. 

g. Koran. 

h. DeMagistro (Concerning the Teacher). 
i. Summa Theologice. 

67. Considering this period from an educational point 

of view, is it rightly called the Dark Ages? 

68. What does the word Renaissance suggest to you? 

How does the Great Renaissance differ from the 
two preceding ones? 

69. Name three German representatives of the new 

learning. 

70. What is the meaning of humanism? What were 

the humanities? 

71. Was the education of women advanced much? 

72. Describe the Gargantua of Rabelais. 

73. Who was called the preceptor of Germany? 

(Melanchthon.) 

74. Describe the Saxony School Plan. Why did it not 

succeed outside of rural schools and small village 
schools ? 

332 



DRILL AND REVIEAV 

75. What was the attitude toward school discipline in 

the sixteenth century? 

76. Who wrote (a) Divine Comedy, (&) Pantagruel, 

(c) Essays on Pedantry, (e) ScJiolemaster, (/) 
Instruction of Children f 

77. What humanist was a noted translator, writer and 

publisher ? 

78. What two courses of study were organized in the 

sixteenth century? Which one has largely in- 
fluenced English and American high school 
courses ? 

79. Give advice of Erasmus for (a) memory; (6) care 

of girls. 

80. When and by whom was printing invented ? 

81. Enumerate the points of value of humanistic train- 

ing. 

a. Required decision in favor of the expression 
that was absolutely best. This required dis- 
crimination, mental acuteness, and scholarly 
tact. 

h. It aimed at exactness in a degree more search- 
ing than either mathematics or science. 

c. Such discipline, though small in extent, was di- 

rect preparation for mental experiences in 
life. 

d. Humanistic scholarship did not exclude other 

subjects having correlated value. 

82. State two defects of humanistic training. 

a. Words were taught instead of things. 

b. Formal side of language emphasized too much. 

83. What is the meaning of the term Innovators ? 

84. Give five pedagogical principles of the Innovators. 

333 



DRILL AND REVIEW 

85. Name three inventions or discoveries that tended to 

direct attention to practical things. 

86. Describe the natural or conversational method of 

Ratke. 

87. State three of Ratke 's principles. 

88. What is meant by the inductive method? Show 

that it deals with things rather than words. 

89. Describe the school system planned by Comenius. 

90. What did Comenius mean by according to nature? 

(See 301.) 

91. Comenius would associate things and words. Show 

that he thus combined humanism and realism. 
(See 298 &.) 

92. Criticize Milton's definition of education. 

93. What subjects used by the Oratorians would class 

them as realists rather than humanists? 

94. Name two contributions from the Port Royalists. 

95. Define, illustrate, and defend indirect instruction 

as used by Fenelon. 

96. Show three ways in which the Christian Brothers 

permanently aided elementary education. 

97. Name three essential principles discussed by Locke. 

98. Give Locke's opinion of (a) Latin, (&) music, 

99. Outline Locke's suggestions on physical education. 

100. What would Locke have parents leave to their 

children ? 

101. Show three views in which Locke followed Mon- 

taigne. 

102. Name the authors : 

a. Novum Organum. 
h. Orhis Pictus. 
c. Paradise Lost. 

334 



DRILL AND REVIEW 

d. Fahles. 

e. Great Didactic. 

f. Essays. 

g. Advancement of Learning, 
h. Paradise Regained. 

i. Port Royal Logic. 

j. Telemachus. 

k. Tractate on Education. 

I. Conduct of Schools. 

m. Essay concerning Human Understanding. 

n. Gate of Tongues Unlocked. 

0. Education of Girls. 

p. Conversations on the Sciences. 

q. Dialogues of the Dead. 

r. Thoughts on Education. 

103. AVliy is Rousseau the representative educator of 

the eighteenth century? 

104. AVhat did Rousseau mean by according to nature? 

105. Define pietism. 

106. Describe the Institutions at Halle. 

107. What educator is associated with university re- 

forms? 

108. What is meant by real schools? 

109. What subjects were studied in the real schools? 

110. Why did the Philanthropin fail? 

111. Show that the principle of motor activity was 

known in Basedow's scheme. 

112. State Kant's view in regard to training the will. 

113. How many periods in Emile's education? 

114. State clearly what was studied by Emile during 

each period. 

115. Define and illustrate negative education. 

335 



DRILL AND REVIEW 

116. What is the meaning of natural punishment? 

State {a) favorable, (&) unfavorable use. 

117. Give Rousseau's view of female education. 

118. Name the author; 
a. Confessions. 

h. Elementary. 

c. Emile. 

d. Book of Methods. 

e. Ancient History. 

f. Philosophy. 

g. Social Contract. 

h. Treatise on Studies. 

119. Give a sketch of the life of Pestalozzi. 

120. What is the source of information on Pestalozzi 's 

views? (See 382.) 

121. Show that Pestalozzi believed in education as de- 

velopment. 

122. State three principles of teaching advocated by 

Pestalozzi. 

123. Give an account of the origin of the kindergarten. 

124. How did Froebel utilize self-activity? 

125. How does the kindergarten satisfy the child's in- 

stinct of productiveness ? 

126. The Education of Man, Thoughts on Education, 

Spencer's Education, Emile, and Dewey's School 
and Society are considered epoch-making books 
in education. Give one leading thought from 
each book. 

127. State three kindergarten principles that apply in 

all education. 
3 28. Give a brief psychological justification of the kin- 
dergarten. (391.) 

336 



DRILL AND REVIEW 

129. What is Herbart's service to Pestalozzianism ? 

(394.) 

130. Show the succession from Locke to Ilerbart. (395.) 

131. Herbart made character the aim of education^ and 

he made will the means to character. Do you 
agree ? Why ? 

132. Show exactly how Pestalozzi^ Froebel and Her- 

bart differ from one another. (400.) 

133. What are the limitations upon repetition in learn- 

ing? Which is ideal, quiet concentration or ac- 
tive repetition? Why? 

134. State a paradox from Jacotot and disprove or de- 

fend it. 

135. Give Spencer's definition of education, naming 

the five activities. 

136. Criticize that definition. 

137. In a course of study, would you favor sciences or 

languages, or both? Why? 

138. Physics has both culture value and material value ; 

Latin has only formal or culture value. Discuss 
this statement. 

139. Explain discipline of consequences. Apply it to 

(a) laziness in school, (&) tardiness, (c) cheat- 
ing. 

140. How did Arnold develop reciprocal trust in school 

government ? 

141. What important treatise did Bain Avrite? State 

one of his views. 

142. Briefly outline the favorable features of European 

schools. 

143. Summarize the contributions of ]\Iann and Bar- 

nard. 

337 



DRILL AND REVIEW 

144. What book was written by David P. Page ? 

145. Arrange in chronological order five courses of 

study that are combined in modern eclectic 
courses. 

146. Make a list of ten books that have strongly in- 

fluenced the history of education. 

147. Give briefly the substance of one book that has 

helped you in the history of education. 

148. Name five prominent educators living in America 

today. 

149. Which one of the teaching congregations is promi- 

nent in elementary education at present ? 

150. Name three educational journals and briefly de- 

scribe the nature of each. 



^ 



338 



INDEX 

The figures refer to sections unless otherwise indicated. 
The names of books are printed in italics. 



A 



Abacus, 149 

Abelard, at Paris, 223 

Academy 

in United States, 433, 485 

Plato's, 98 
According to nature 

Bacon, 480 

Comenius, 301, 480 

Froehel, 388, 481 

Pestalozzi, 481 

Port Royalists, 320 

Ratke, 289 

Rousseau, 362, 363, 481 
Achilles, 60 
Administration of schools 

Austria, p. 273 

England, pp. 268, 274 

France, pp. 267, 273 

Germany, pp. 266, 272 

Russia, p. 269 

United States, pp. 224, 275 
Advancement of Learning, Ba- 
con, 293 
Agricola, 237 
Ahriman of Zoroaster, 38 
Albertus Magnus, Dominican, 

234 
Alchemy, 4 under 36 
Alcuin, 191 
Aldhelm, 187 
Aldine printing press, p. 131 



Alexander the Great, 59 

Alexandria, 170 

Alfred the Great, 194 

Alphabet, 33 

American education. Chap. 

XXVI 
American Journal of Education, 

p. 233 
Analects of Confncius, 11 
Ancestral education, 11 
Animism, 10 

Apperception, Herbart, 393 
Apprentices, 31 
Aquaviva, 247 
Aquinas, St. Thomas, 223 
Arabian service to education, 

210 
Arabic notation, 210 
Aristotle, 104-110 
Arithmetic 

Athenian, 74 

concrete primary, 149 

Egyptian, 43 

Hindu, 25, 144 

Saracen, 210 
Arno'd, Thomas, 413 
Aryans, 17 
Asceticism, 180 
Ascham, Roger, 244 
Astrology, 4 under 36 
Athens 

new, p. 47 

old, p. 43 



339 



INDEX 



Attendance, 284 
Augustine, St., 178 
Augustus, p. 74 



Bacon, Francis, 292 

Bacon, Roger, 283 

Bede or Baeda, 188 

Bain, 419 

Barnard, Henry, 424, 438 

Barzizza, 235 

Basedow, 349 

Basil, 177 

Bell, Andrew, 472 

Benedict, St., 182 

Benedictine monks, 182 

Bible 

Greek New Testament, Eras- 
mus, 238 

Latin Vulgate, St. Jerome, 
175 

Luther's, 240 
Blankenburg, kindergarten, 386 
Boccaccio, 235 

Boetliius, Translation of, 194 
Bologna University, 215 
Boniface, 182 
Book of Methods, Basedow, 

350 
Book of Dead, Egypt, 43 
Books, list of, 517 
Boston Latin School, 429 
Brahmanism, 27 
Brahmans, 20, 22, 23 
Brethren of the Christian 

Schools, 236 
Brown, E. E., 424 
Browning, Oscar, quoted, 182 
Budaeus, 278 
Buddha, 27 

Bureau of Education, 424 
Burgher schools, p. 119 
Butler, quoted, 2 



Cabell, 448 
Csesar, p. 74 



340 



Ca?sarea, p. 170 
Calvin, p. 154 
Campe, 352 
Carthage, p. 170 
Carvilius, Spurius, 112 
Castes 

defined, p. 17 

Egyptian, 40 

Hindu, 20 
Catechetical schools, 170 
Catechumens, 170 
Cathedral schools, 170 
Champeaux, William of, p. 

118 
Character, an ideal, 2, 398 
Charlemagne, 189 
Cheever, Ezekiel, 429 
Chemistry, 210 
Child study, Rousseau, 372 
China, 11 
Chivalry, 198 
Christian 

Brothers, 325, 476 

era in education, p. 90 

Fathers, 171 

ideas, 166 
Chronological table, 488 
Chrysoloras, 235 
Chrysostom, 176 
Cicero, 120 
Cistercians, 182 
Citizenship, an ideal, 2 
Classical literature 

Chinese, 12 

Greek in Rome, 118 

Hindu, 22 

in Jesuit schools, 247 

in Sturm's school, 242 

Roman in Rome, 118 
Claxton, P. P., 424 
Clement, 172 
Colet, 244 
Colleges 

Connecticut, 439 

Georgia, p. 245 

Maryland, p. 241 

Massachusetts, 436 

New Jersey, p. 235 



INDEX 



Colleges — Continued 

New York State, 45G 

Pennsylvania, p. 237 

Virginia, 447 
Colloquies, Erasmus, 238 
Columbia University, 240 
Comenius 

aims and principles, 297, 300 

Didactica Magna, Comenius, 
300 

educational periods, 299 

Janua Linguarum, 298 

labors, 299, 300 

OrUs Pictus, 298 

realism, 9 under 339 

text-books, 298 
Commissioner of Education 

U. S., 424 
Commercial aim, Phenicia, 30 
Common School Journal^ 450 
Complete living, Spencer, 407 
Compulsory education, 284 
Conduct of Schools, LaSalle, 

327 
Confessions 

Rousseau, 3G1 

St. Augustine, 178 
Confucius, 12 
Congregations, teaching 

Christian Brothers, 325 

Jansenists, 318 

Jesuits, 245 

Oratorians, 314 

Port Royalists, 318 
Connecticut, 437 
Counter-reformation, 245 
County supervision. Chap. 

XXVII 
Course of study, 51G 

Classical High School, 241 

modern, 249 

music and gymnastics, 7'^» 

ratio studiorum, 247 

Roman, 136, 153 

Seven Liberal Arts, 184 
Court schools, 235, 243 
Crotona, G8 
Crusades, 202 



Culture, an ideal, 2 
Culture epochs, 377 



da Feltre, p. 130 
Dancing, Greek, 7G 
Dante, 235 

Dates and events, 452, 488 
De Anima, Vives, 278 
Decimal system, 25 
Dc Disciplinis, Vives, 278 
Deductive method 
Aristotle, 109, 151 
St. Thomas, 221 
Degrees, Chinese, IG 
Demosthenes, 59 
Dessau, Basedow's Philauthro- 

pin, 351 
Development, an ideal, 2, 140 
Deventer, 23G 
Dewey, 351 
Dialectic, 49 
Dialogues, Plato, 99 
Dialogues of the Dead, Fenelon, 

312 
Didactica Maqna, Comenius, 

300 
Didaskaleion, 80 
Discipline, an ideal, 2 
Discipline of consequences, 367, 

412 
Disputation in .Tesuit schools, 

248 
Dock, Christopher, 442 
Dominicans, 182 
Donatus, Latin grammar, p. 84 
Drill and review, p. 328 
Duns Scotus, Franciscan, 234 



E 

Eaton, John, 424 

Education 

ancestral, p. 11 
animism, 10 



341 



INDEX 



Education — Continued 

caste, p. 17 

commercial, p. 23 

early Christian, 168 

eclectic, 1, 486 

epochs, 7-8 

Grasco-Roman, 115 

harmonious, 78 

humanistic, p. 122 

ideals, 2 

medieval, p. 90 

modern, p. 122 

monastic, 179 

New York State, p. 248 

priestly, p. 27 

primitive, 9 

realistic, p. 146 

Roman, p. 73 

State, p. 25 

theocratic, p. 30 

value of history, 3-7 
Education, Spencer, 406 
Education as a Science, Bain, 

420 
Education of Girls, Fenelon, 

309 
Education of Man, Froebel, 387 
Efficiency, an ideal, 2 
Egypt, 39 

Elementarie, Mulcaster, 272 
Elementary Book, Basedow, 

350 
Emile, Rousseau, 363 
Emulation in Jesuit schools, 

248 
England, 463 

English public schools, p. 140 
Ephebes, Athenian, 75 
Episcopal schools, 170 
Epochs, 7 
Erasmus, 244 
Erigena, 193 
Esquire, training, 199 
Essays 

Bacon, 293 

Locke, 332 

Montaigne, 261 
Ethics, Aristotle, 104 



Euclid, 59 

European education, p. 266 

Evening Hours of a Hermit, 

Pestalozzi, 382 
Examinations, Chinese, 16 
Expression, Froebel's theory, 

390 



Faculties in medieval universi- 
ties, 214 
Faust, John, 224 
Fenelon, 308 
Feudalism, 199 
Florence 

Aldine press, p. 131 

Chrysoloras, p. 130 

University, p. 130 
Formal discipline, 330 
Formal Steps of Instruction, 

393 
France, 462 

Franciscans, 3 under 182 
Francke, 343, 477 

and Pietists, 343 

institutions at Halle, 344 

pedagogium, 346 

real schools, 348 
Franklin, Benjamin, 443 
Frederick, William I, 348 
Froebel, 386 

Education of Man, 387 

kindergarten, 388 
Fiirstenschulen, 243 



Galileo, 283 

Gargantua, Rabelais, 255 

Gemara, 50 

Geometry, Egyptian, 43 

Georgia, 449 

Georgias, 88 

Germany, 455 

Gifts, kindergarten, 390 

Grammatists, schools of, 118 



342 



INDEX 



Great Didactic, Comenius, 300 
Great Teacher, Jesus Christ, p. 

16G 
Greece, 36 

Age of Pericles, p. 47 

Athens, new, 77 

Athens, old, p. 39 

great men, 59 

Homeric period, GO 

Sophists, 88 

Sparta, 61 

Theorists, p. 54 
Grocyn, p. 138 
Groot at Deventer, 236 
Guarino, 235 
Guericke, air pump, 283 
Guild schools, p, 119 
Gutenberg, 224 
Gymnasien, 242 
Gymnasium, 74, 82, p. 58, 242 
Gymnastics in Greece, 76 



H 



Hall, S. R., p. 276 
Halle, Institutions, 343 
Hanlin or Imperial Academy, 

16 
Harvard, 429, 430 
Harvey, circulation of blood, 

283 
Hegius, 235 
Helots, 63 

Harris, W. T, pp. 222, 424 
Harvey, 283 
Hebrews, 45 

Hecker and real schools, 348 
Herbart, 393 
Herodotus, 59 
Hieronymians, 236 
Hindustan, 19 
Hinsdale, B. A., p. 223 
Hippias, 88 

History, for patriotism, 48, 178 
History of education, value, 3 
Homer, 59, 60 
Hoose, J. H., 446 (a) 



Horace, p. 74 

Hoio Gertrude Teaches her 

Children, Pestalozzi, 382 
Humanism, 234-240 

America, 244, p. 140 

England, p. 138 

Germany, 231, 236 

Holland, 231, 236 

Italy, 230, 235 

narrow, 234 
Ilumanitas, Roman, 135, 234 



I 



Ideals, in education, 2 

Iliad, 59 

India, 19 

Indirect instruction, 311, 312 

Inductive method 

Aristotle, 110 

Bacon, 292, 294 

Locke, 334 

Rousseau, 368 

Socrates, 91 
Inheritances, 1, 486 
Innovators, 281 
Institutes of Oratory, Quintil- 

ian, 124 
Interest, Herbartian, 398 
Invention of printing, 224 
lona monastery, p. 104 
Irens in Sparta, 65 
Irish monks, p. 104 
Islam, 204 



.Tacotot, 401 

Jansenists, 318 

Janua Linguarum, Comenius, 
298 

Jefferson, Thomas, 447 

Jerome, St., 175 

Jesuits, 245, 475 
as teachers, 248 
Ratio Studiorum, 247 

Jesus, pedagogy of, 167 

Jews, 44 



343 



INDEX 



Joannes Scotus Erigena, 193 
Johns Hopkins, p. 241 
Journals, pedagogical, pp. 233, 

246 
Justinian, p. 98 



Kant, 1, 374 
Kemp, quoted, 25 
Kepler, 283 
Kindergarten, 388-391 
Knight, perfections, 198 
Knowledge, an ideal, 2 
Knox, p. 154 
Koran, 205 



La Fontaine, 324 

Lamy, 317 

Lancaster, Joseph, 472, 478 

Lancelot, 323 

LaSalle, 325 

Conduct of Schools, 327 

normal school, 328 

simultaneous teaching, 328 
Latin method 

x\.scham, 239 

Comenius, 9 under 338 

Jesuits, 248 

Locke, 5 under 334 

Ratke, 289 

Sturm, 242 
Laurentius, printer, 224 
Law 

Bologna, 215 

Hebrew, 50 

Lycurgus, 62 

Roman, 111, 119 
Laws, Plato, 99 
Learning, revival of. Chap. 

XX 
Leonard and Qertrude, Pesta- 

lozzi, 382 
Libraries, humanistic, p. 131 
Liuacre, p. 138 
Literator, 117 



Literatus, 118 
Lives, Plutarch, 128 
Livius Andronicus, 114 
Livy, p. 74 
Locke 

character of work, 337 

health rules, 335 

intellectual training, 334 

moral training, 336 

physical training, 335 
Logic, Port Royal, 322 
Loyola, Ignatius, 245 
Luther, Martin, 240 
Lyceum of Aristotle, 105 
Lycurgus, 59, 62 
Lyre at Sparta, 65 

M 

McClure at Yverdon, 444 
Magi, 36 

Mann, Horace, 435 
Mantua court school, p. 130 
Mascaron, Oratorian, 317 
Massachusetts, p. 226 
Massillon, Oratorian, 317 
Man r us, 192 
Melanchthon, 241 
Mencius, 12 
Military training 

of chivalry, 199-202 

Persian, 34 

Spartan, 05 
Milton, John, 303 
Mishna, 50 

Model school, Herbart's, 393 
Mohammedans, 204 
Monasticism, 179 
Monitorial system 

Bell, 472, 478 

Hindu, 22 

Lancaster, 472, 478 
Montaigne, 260 
More, Thomas, 260 
Mulcaster, Richard, 269 
Muses, Grecian, 76 
Music, Athenian, 76 
Mysticism, p. 118 



344 



INDEX 



N 



Native languges 

Montaigne, 2G5 

Mulcaster, 269 
Natural education, see Accord- 
ing to nature 
Naturalism, 267 
Naturalists, 340 
Neander, 244 

Neef in Pennsylvania, 444 
Negative education, 364 
Nero, 123 
New Jersey, p. 234 
New Testament of Erasmus, 

238 
Newton, Sir Isaac, 283 
New York State education, p. 

248 
Niccolo Niccoli, 235 
Nicole, 323 
Nirvana in India, 27 
Normal schools 

Austria, 348 

Francke, 343 

Germany, 348 

LaSalle, 328 

New York State, 455 

See Chap. XXVI and Chap. 
XXIX 

United States, 276 
Notation, 144 
]\"ouum Organum, Bacon, 292 



O 

Odysseus, 60 

Odyssey, 59 

Of the First Liberal Education 
of Children, Erasmus, 238 

On the Order of Studies, Eras- 
mus, 238 

Oratorians, 314 

Orbis Pictus, Comenius, 298 

Origen, 173 

Ormuzd, 38 

Ovid, p. 74 

Oxford, 194, 215 



Padua court school, p. 131 
P.Bdonomus in Sparta, 68 
Page, David P., 444 
Page, training, 199 
Palace School 

Alfred the Great, 194 

Charlemagne, 191 
Palestra, 80 
Papyrus, 43 

Paradoxes of Jacotot, 403 
Paris University, 215 
Pascal, 324 
Payne, Joseph, 422 
Pedagogium, 346 
Pedagogue, 80 
Pedagogy 

Aristotle, 108 

Jesus, 167 

Plato, 103 

Quintilian, 125 
Pennsylvania, p. 236 
Pericles, p. 47 
Persia, 34 
Pestalozzi, 381 

books, 382 

ideas, 383 

influence, 385 

principles, 384 
Petrarch, 235 
Phenicia, 29 

Philanthropin of Basedow, 351 
Philosophy 

Athenian, 89 

Bacon's, 294 

early Greek, 86 

great Greek schools, p. 54 

Jesuit, 247 

inductive in Aristotle, 210 

Peripatetic, 105 

Pythagorean, 87 

Saracenic, 210 
Phonic method, 321 
Play in education 

Aristotle, 108 

Athens, 79 

Fro€beL 390 



345 



INDEX 



Play in education — Continued 
Plato, 102 

Pietists, 343 

Plato, p. 61 

Pliny, 129 

Plutarch, 127 

Politics, Aristotle, 107 

Pope Nicholas V, libraries, p. 
131 

Port Royalists, 318 

Praise of Folly, Erasmus, 238 

Principles of education, 159 

Printing 

Aldine Press, Florence, p. 131 
invention of, 224 

Priscian, Latin grammar, p. 
84 

Prodicus, 88 

Professional training of teach- 
ers, p. 270 

Pronunciation of names, p. 
290 

Prophets, schools of, 51 

Proportion, Pythagoras, 87 

Protagoras, 88 

Prussia, 46 

Ptolemy, 59 

Public schools, English, 244 

Punishment, natural, 366 

Pythagoras, 87 



Q 



Quadrivium, 184 

Questions for review, p. 328 

Quintilian, 124 



Rabanus Maurus, 192 
Rabelais, 254 
Rabbi schools, 50 
Ramus, 272 
Ratio Studiorum, 247 
Ratke or Ratich 
claims, 289 



346 



Ratke or Ratich — Continued 

influence, 291 

methods, 289 

principles, 290 
Reaction in realism, 282 ~ 
Realism, 250-253 
Real schools, 348 
References for study, p. 290 
Reformation, Protestant, 240 
Regents of New York State, p. 

251 
Renaissance, 225 
Repuhlic, Plato, 99-103 
Reuchlin, 238 
Review. Chap. XXXV 
Revival of Learning, 225 
Rheims Normal School, 328 
Rhetoric 

Quintilian, 152 

Roman, 119 
Sophists, p. 53 
Roelandsen, Adam, p. 248 
Rollin, 323, 353 
Rome, p. 73 
Rosmini, p. 220 
Rote learning, 22 
Rousseau, 360 

according to nature, 362 

Emile, 363-374 

influence, 373 

natural punishment, 366 

negative education, 364 

writings, 361 



St. Barnard of Clairvaux, p. 

118 
St. Boniface in Germany, p. 

104 
St. Clare, nuns of, 182 
St. Columba at lona, p. 104 
St. Patrick, p. 104 
St. Scholastica, 186 
Salerno University, 215 
Sallust, p. 74 
Salzmann, 349 
Sanskrit, 22 



INDEX 



Saracens, 204 
Saxony School Plan, 241 
Schoeffler, Peter, 224 
Scholastica, Seiter, 18G 
Scholasticism, 216 
i^cholemaster, Ascham, 239 
ISchool and Society, Dewey, 

517 
Schoolmen, 216 
Schools 

burgher, p. 119 

catechetical, 170 

charity, p. 120 

court, 235, No. 8 

episcopal, 170 

guild, p. 119 

public, in England, 244 

real, 348 

summary, 518 

town, p. 119 
Seneca, 121 

Seven Liberal Arts, 184 
Socrates 

influence of method, 92 

limitations of method, 93 

method, 91 

purpose, 89-90 
Solon, 39 
Songs for Mother and Nursery, 

Froebel, 387 
Sophia, Rousseau's, 369 
Sophists, 88 
Sparta, 61 

Spencer, Herbert, 405 
Spener, Philip, 344 
State organization of schools. 

Chap. XXVII 
Stilo, Latin school, p. 82 
Stories, Fenelon's use of, 308 
Strabo, 59 
Sturm, 242 
Sudras, 20 

Summary, general, p. 310 
Swiss Family Rohinson, Campe. 

352 
Syllabus, New York State, p. 

296 
Sylvias, iEnaeas, 235 



T 



Tacitus, p. 74 
Talmud, 49 
Teachers 

Athenian, 84 

Brahman, 22 

Chinese, 15 

Egyptian, 42 

Greek, 84 

Hebrew, 49 

pedagogical training, 270 
Teaching congregations, p. 168 
Tertullian, 174 
Thales, 86 

Thomassin, Oratorian, 317 
Tom Brown's School Days, 

418 
Treatise on Studies, Rollin, 355 
Twelve Tables, Rome, 111 

Jesuit, 248 

Persian, 36 

professional training. Chap. 
XXXIX 

Roman, 117, 118 
Telemachus, Fenelon, 312 
Tertullian, 174 
Theocracy, 142 
Theology, 215, 223 
Thoughts on Education, Locke, 

332 
Tractate on Education, Milton, 

303 
Training of Children, Plutarch, 

128 
Trigonometry, Saracenic, 210 
Trivium, 184 
Trotzendorf, 243 



United States. Chap. XXVI 
Universities 

Alexandria, 59 

Christian, 211-210 

See Chap. XXVIII 
Utility, Spencer, 410 



347 



INDEX 



Value of history of education, 3 
Varro, 132 
Veda, 22 
Vergil, p. 74 
Virginia, 446 
Virtues, life, 520 
Vittorino da Feltre, 235 
Vives, 278 

W 

Wadsworth, James, 442 
Wessel, 235 
Wimpfeling, 235 



Women 

Athenian, 79, 85 
Fenelon's view, 310 
Roman, 111 
Rousseau's view, 3()9 
Spartan, 07 



Xenophon, 90 



Z 



Zend Avesta, 36 
Zoroaster, 38 
Zwingli, p. 280 



348 



McEVOY PUBLICATIONS 



McEvoy's Methods in Education 

Third Edition, 433 Pages, S1.50 



The first edition was sold within three months after 
being offered for pubKc sale. Why? Because this book 
avoids all vague theory and goes straight to the needs 
of pupils and teachers. It stands for the modern idea 
of clearness in teaching, and every chapter shows how 
to make that idea dominant in education. It gives 
adequate treatment of 783 topics in principles of edu- 
cation, school economy, school management and 
methods of teaching all elementary subjects. Every 
lesson is ready for use in the classroom. 

CONTENTS 
Chapter Page 

I. Introduction: Scope of this Book 3 

II. The Curriculum S 

III. Supt. Maxwell on the Course of Study 15 

IV. Principles of Education 35 

V. Methods in School Economy 45 

VI. Methods in School Management 50 

VII. Methods of Teaching 76 

VIII. General Method 98 

IX. SpelHng no 

X. Composition 140 

XL Grammar 159 

XII. Geography 201 

XIII. History and Civics 257 

XIV. Reading 279 

XV. Arithmetic 316 

XVI. One Hundred Review Questions 427 



T. J. McEVOY 

6 THIRD AVENUE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. 



McEvoy^s Science of Education 

Second Edition, 327 pages, $2.00 



Organization of knowledge is the aim of this book. 
Students speak about the science of education but 
few of them are able to classify the facts acquired 
from various sources. This text-book brings together 
the essentials of psychology, principles of education 
and methods of teaching, and interprets those essentials 
in relation to education as a unified process. Used in 
training classes, normal schools, university courses in 
pedagogy, and private preparation for examinations. 



CONTENTS 

Chapter ^ Page 

I. The Meaning of Education 3 

II. Aspects of Education 20 

III. The Course of Study 36 

IV. Methods of Teaching 49 

V. General Method 54 

VI. Principles of Education 63 

VII. Instinct and Habit 86 

VIII. Definitions in Psychology 98 

IX. Adolescence 105 

X. Meaning Terms 1 20 

XI. Special Problems in Education 130 

XII. School Administration 148 

XIII. Approved Answers 180 

XIV. Questions and Typical Answers 194 

XV. Sets of Questions Without Answers 310 

XVI. Question for Written Answers 314 

Index 323 



T. J. McE VO Y 

6 THIRD AVENUE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. 



Answers in Methods of Teaching 



Third Edition, $2.00 net 



Thoughtful students use answers as types in the 
process of apperception. This use implies clearness, 
breadth, balance, accuracy, and also pleasing expres- 
sion. These merits are not found in books of the old 
style, — mere, crusty answers; the new pedagogy re- 
quires all that the term education connotes. 

The first edition was in stencil form, and it gave 
the composite work of two thousand teachers. The 
second edition was printed but was not for public 
sale. The second edition represented the thought of 
another thousand successful students. The third 
edition, representing the cumulative experience of 
four thousand thoughtful teachers, will be ready in 
December, 191 5. 

The scope of these answers includes all examina- 
tions for teaching and supervising in the elementary 
schools in the City of New York. 



T. J. Mc EVOY 

6 THIRD AVENUE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. 



Answers in Methods in Arithmetic 

Second Edition, 1913, $2.00 



This book was published in July, 19 13. It covers 
all the essentials in all of the professional examina- 
tions for teachers' licenses in New York from 1897 
to 1 913. It is interesting in itself because it gives 
the viewpoint of essentials in arithmetic in the largest 
school system in America. It shows not only what is 
required to be known by teachers but also what methods, 
of presentation are considered valid. The require- 
ments are for the following licenses: 

License No. i in elementary schools. 
Promotion license in elementary schools. 
Assistant to principal in elementary schools. 
Principal in elementary schools. 

The proof for the second edition was read by three 
of the ablest mathematicians in the world. Their views 
are sound; and the pedagogical application is sound, if 
we may judge by the success of teachers who used 
this material. 



T. J. McEVOY 

6 THIRD AVENUE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. 



Answers in School Management 

Second Edition, 1915, $2.00 



Similar to Answers in 
Methods of Teaching in 
aim and scope. No further 
justification needed. 



T. J. McEVOY 

6 THIRD AVENUE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. 



EXAMINATION QUESTIONS IN ENGLISH FOR 
LICENSES TO TEACH IN NEW YORK CITY 

Third Edition, September, 1914, $1.00 net 



This book was compiled for the use of co-workers 
who believed that scholarly equipment embodied a 
view of the whole field of English in this school system. 
The first edition was intended primarily for candidates 
for license to teach English in the high schools in New 
York, but that edition and the second edition soon 
found wider scope as drill, review and test books in high 
schools, normal schools and colleges. This third edition 
will be welcomed by all who desire a convenient guide 
to the standards upheld by the Board of Examiners. It 
contains 577 questions. 

CONTENTS 
Chapter Page 

I. Academic Examination for License No. i i 

II. English for Substitute License No, i 7 

III. License No. i for Elementary Schools 10 

IV. Promotion License in Elementary Schools 39 

V. Stenography and Typewriting 53 

VI. Evening School Examinations 61 

VII. High School Examinations 73 

VIII. Elocution in High Schools 103 

IX. High School Clerkship 108 

X. First Assistant in High Schools 112 

XL Principal in Elementary Schools 124 



T. J. McE VO Y 

6 THIRD AVENUE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. 



Examination Questions in Methods 
and School Management 

Third Edition, September, 1914. $1.00 net 



All the questions used for a quarter of a century in Brooklyn 
and New York City. 



Part I. Methods or Teaching 
Chapter Page 

I. License No. i for Elementary Schools i 

II. Kindergarten Examinations 65 

III. Assistant to Principal and Head of Department 69 

IV. Principal in Elementary Schools 79 

V. License to Teach Ungraded Classes 106 

Part II. School Management 

VI. Assistant to Principal and Head of Department 113 

VII. Principal in Elementary Schools 122 

VIII. Truant School, Evening School, Training School 139 

548 Questions in Methods of Teaching 
185 Questions in School Management 



T. J . McEVO Y 

6 THIRD AVENUE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. 



PUBLIC SPEAKING 

This tested material is suitable for morning ex- 
ercises, special programs for graduating exercises 



No. 50. The Granttng of Magna Charta loc. 

By Adelaide Crim. 
An accurate dramatization of historic events for ten or more grammar grade boys. 

No. 51. The Feast of Mondamtn loc. 

By the Misses Berkan. 
Primary grades enjoy this play for Thanksgiving, Christmas or Arbor Day. 

Four Patrtottc Dramattzattons in one Booklet 25c. 

No. 52. America's Greatness by Sadie B. Brewster. 
No. S3. The Star Spangled Banner by Sarah Driscoll Johnson. 
No. 54. The Development of Our Government by Delia Courson. 
No. 55. The Progress of Our Country by Samuel P. Abelow. 

No. 56. The Adoption of the Declaration of Independence 25c. 

By A. E. Winship and C. M. Barrows. 
A vivid reproduction of the actual proceedings. For fifteen or more boys; 
time, twenty minutes. Girls may join the exercises by reciting appropriate pieces, 
giving history of the events, results, etc. 

No. 57. Hudson -Fulton Exercises 25c 

A double number of the McEvoy Magazine giving dramatized material for 
all elementary grades. History, literature and oratory blended for pupils. 

No. 58. Lincoln Exercises 25c. 

Third edition of a pamphlet that satisfies schools every day in the year. 

No. 5g. Flag Day Manual 25c. 

Fourth edition, revised, enlarged, illustrated by 19 half-tone cuts. History 
of Flag, quotations, recitations, declamations, history of patriotic songs and flag 
salutes. 

No. 60. The Battle of Long Island 2sc. 

By P. S. 90, Brooklyn. 
A dramatization in five scenes. Time, one hour; adapted for shorter or 
longer time. 

No. 61. Life of Columbus 25c. 

By William Miller. 
A dramatization true to history. Vivid and fascinating for grammar grades 
or high school. 

No. 62. Liberty's Onward March 15c. 

By Sadie B. Brewster. 
The history of liberty told in prose and poetry. Splendid correlation for 
elementary schools and high schools. 

Three in One: History, Kindliness, Comedy 25c. 

No. 63. Surrender of Appomattox by Robert F. Pratt. 

No. 64. A Christmas Carol, adapted from Dickens, by Raphael C. Dooley. 

No. 65. The Death of Bad Grammar by Louise M. Capen. 



16 booklets {$2.35) postpaid for $2.00 



T. J. McEVOY, 6 Third Avenue, Brooklyn, N. Y. 



Help in Organization of Knowl 
edge Essentials of History 



Hoffman's Essentials of English 
History, 25c. 

This condensed presentation of all of English history 
from 43 B. C. to the present is in topical outline form, 
but it is more than a skeleton outline. It is an epito- 
mized book that may be used alone or with any text- 
book on English history. It means economy of time and 
energy for teachers on account of the completeness of 
details; it is a stimulating guide to pupils in getting 
assigned lessons, in making systematic review, or in 
carrying on research work. As a type of useful classi- 
fication, it satisfies the most exacting demands of mod- 
ern pedagogy. 

McLaury's Essentials of American 
History and Civics, 25c. 

This book is by the author of English History, Harriet 
Hoffman McLaury. The Essentials of American His- 
tory is the most popular book on our list. It is popular 
because it is helpful. All the facts are presented but 
the arrangement permits elimination without inter- 
fering with development or unity. For this reason the 
book is used by pupils and teachers in elementary, 
secondary and collegiate institutions. 

Free desk copy when six or more are ordered. 



T. J. McEVOY 

6 THIRD AVENUE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. 



Help in Teaching Pupils How 
to Study 



Essentials of Geography 

15c. a copy postpaid; ten or more, loc. each postpaid 

These booklets contain the essential facts selected 
from all geographies, organized according to our best 
courses of study, and adapted to the needs of pupils. 

This material guides the home study, invites self- 
activity during study periods, outlines class discussion, 
and satisfies drill and review. 

Stop dictating outlines and notes; let the pupils 
acquire habits of systematic effort. 

A million copies sold in the United States in one 
year. 



Europe, 48 pages 

Asia, 28 pages 

Africa, 24 pages 

Australia and the Islands of Pacific Ocean, 

24 pages 

Canada, 24 pages 

Mexico, Central America and West Indies, 

48 pages 

United States, 24 pages 

North America, 32 pages 

South America, 24 pages 

New York State, 48 pages 



One sample set 
of ten outlines 



$1 



T. J. McE VOY 

6 THIRD AVENUE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. 



McEVOY MAGAZINE 

Why You Should Subscribe 



1. It is a consolidation of four school magazines. 

2. It presents work ready for the classroom in kindergarten, elementary 
school and high school. 

3. It saves energy, time and money — energy in re.search, time in planning, 
and money for books. 

4. It costs less than two cents a week. Send a dollar with your full address 
and you will get all the numbers on time. Four issues a year: September, 
December, March and June. 

Sample Table of Contents, December, IQ14. 

Supt. Maxwell's Message to Principals 161 

Dramatization — Liberty's Onward March 172 

Sadie B. Brewster 

Arithmetic for 7th Year 179 

Leslie O. Lynch. 

I A English 193 

Anna R. Rush. 

2A Language Work 203 

2 A Spelling and Dictation 209 

Flora M. Scherzinger. 

2B Language Work 213 

E. M. Thomson. 

3 A Spelling and Dictation 219 

3 A Language 221 

Florence E. Gerbing. 
Lucy E. Graff. 

3B Spelling 225 

3B Language 229 

Mary M. Keenan. 

4A Composition 233 

Loretto V. Donovan. 

4B Composition 237 

Helen G. Woodruff. 

4B Letters and Stories 241 

Hilda M. Dunbar. 

5B Spelling, Dictation and Composition 245 

Frances Miller. 

Term Plan in 5A Grammar 253 

History for 6A Grade 261 

History for 6B Grade 275 

WiUiam T. Smith, A.M. 

Elementary Botany for High School 293 

Mildred L. L. Taitt. 

Physics: Problems and Solutions 303 

Sarah DriscoU Johnson. 

Physical Geography 309 

Walter S. Newton. 

Public Speaking 202, 207, 208, 218, 224 

Examination Questions for Teachers 

Principals, Methods 232 

Principals, History and Principles 244 

Public I-ibrary 240 

Promotion License 308 

Academic, License No. i 308 

Book Reviews 327 



T. J. McEVOY, 6 Third Avenue, Brooklyn, N.Y. 



McEvoy School of Pedagogy 



Founded in 1900 to help teachers pass the exam- 
inations for licenses to teach in the City of New York. 
This school was a pioneer in the field of pedagogy by 
correspondence and it quickly earned success by appeal- 
ing to men and women of brains, industry and character. 

Correspondence courses are the distinctive mode of 
instruction, but class sessions and individual tutoring 
are supplementary processes. 

The scope of our work includes all licenses to teach 
in New York. Success is not guaranteed in any case 
but no student will be accepted unless we think we can 
make success a certainty. 

RESULTS 

1. Our students earned first place on eligible lists for License 
No. I thirteen times in fourteen years. 

2. Our students for license to teach in High Schools earned 
first, second or third place in every examination from 1902 to 1914. 

3. Our students for license as Assistant to Principal earned 
first and second places in the last examination, and also made 
the highest percentage of class success among fourteen classes in 
this city. 

4. Our students for license as Principal earned first place 
and four out of the first nine places in the last examination for 
women. 

5. The McEvoy School of Pedagogy had five times as many 
successful candidates as all the other coaching schools combined 
had in fourteen years. McEvoy school list exceeds 5,300. 

REFERENCE 

Inquire in any public school in New York or ask any recognized 
educator in the United States. 



McEVOY SCHOOL, 6 Third Ave., Brooklyn, N.Y. 



iiifiiir 

019 879 703 



